University of Virginia Library

CHAPTER II

1[1]

King Chuang of Ch`u was besieging [the capital of] Sung. When
he had rations for [only] seven days, he said, "If we exhaust these
[supplies] without conquering, then we are going to withdraw and
go back home." Whereupon he had the Ssŭ-ma Tzŭ-fan climb
up on the mound built by the besiegers[2] to spy on the town of
Sung. [The Prince of] Sung sent Hua Yüan to climb up on the
mound to intercept him.

Tzŭ-fan said, "How are things with your state?"

Hua Yüan said, "We are exhausted! We exchange our children[3]
and eat them, splitting and cooking the bones."

Tzŭ-fan said, "Alas! Extreme straits indeed! However, I have
heard that in besieged states they gag their horses when they
give them grain[4] and send out the fat ones to meet the enemy.
Now, how is it that you, sir, are so frank?"

Hua Yüan said, "I have heard that the superior man, seeing
another's distress, has compassion on him; while the mean man,
seeing another's distress, rejoices in it. I saw that you seemed
to be a superior man, and that is why I was so frank."

Tzŭ-fan said, "It is so. May you exert yourself. Our army
has only seven days' rations." Bowing, he left.

Tzŭ-fan reported to King Chuang. King Chuang said, "How
are they?"

Tzŭ-fan said, "They are exhausted. They exchange children
and eat them, splitting and cooking the bones."

King Chuang said, "Alas! Extreme straits indeed. Now all
we have to do is take them and return."

Tzŭ-fan said, "We cannot do it. I have already told them that
our army for its part has only seven days' rations."

King Chuang was angry and said, "I sent you to observe them.
Why did you tell them?"

Tzŭ-fan said, "If a state as small as Sung still has a subject
who does not practice deceit, how can Ch`u lack them? This is
why I told him."

King Chuang said, "Nevertheless we[5] shall presently just take
them and return."

Tzŭ-fan said, "Let Your Highness stay here; I will just go
home, if I may."

The king said, "If you return, leaving me, with whom should
I stay here? I shall return as you wish." Whereupon he went
back with his army.

The superior man approves their making peace themselves.
Hua Yüan told Tzŭ-fan the truth and succeeded thereby in raising
the seige and keeping intact the fortune of the two states. The
Ode says,[6]

The superior man approves their telling one another the truth.

2[1]

Ying, the daughter of a gatekeeper of Lu was weaving with
another [girl]. At midnight she cried.

Her companion said, "Why are you weeping?"

Ying said, "I have heard that the Heir Apparent of Wei is
unworthy; therefore[2] I weep."

Her companion said, "That the Heir Apparent of Wei is
unworthy is the worry of the feudal lords. Why should you weep
because of it?"

Ying said, "What I have heard is at variance with what you
say. Formerly the ssŭ-ma Huan of Sung fell into disfavor with
the Prince of Sung and left the country for Lu.[3] His horse
got loose and rolled in my garden and ate the mallows there.
For that year I have heard that the gardener lost half his harvest.
When the king of Yüeh, Kou-chien, raised troops to attack Wu,
the feudal lords feared his power, and Lu sent him a present of
girls, among them my sister. My elder brother went to see her and
succumbed to the perils of the road. Now it was Wu who was
overawed by Yüeh's army, but it was I who lost a brother. Viewed
in this light, disaster and prosperity come one after the other.[4]
Now the Heir Apparent of Wei is most unworthy and loves war.
Can I, with three younger brothers, be anything but worried?"

The Ode says,[5]

Is this not the same sort of thing?

3[1]

Kao-tzŭ asked Mencius, "Now marriage is not a matter managed

by individuals, so how is it that the woman of Wei got a
section in the Odes?"[2]

Mencius said, "With the intentions of the woman of Wei it is
all right; without such intentions it would be carelessness. Like
I-yin's behavior toward T`ai-chia:[3] with the intentions of I-yin
it was all right; without such intentions it would have been
usurpation.[4] Now there are two [aspects] of the Way: the
unvarying aspect which is called constancy, and the changing
aspect called adaptation.[5] The one who, cherishing this unvarying
way, holds ready this [capacity for] change and adaptability
will succeed in becoming a sage. Now the woman of Wei in conduct
succeeded in being filial and in her solicitude became a saint.
If she was adaptable, what then?"

The Ode says,[6]

4[1]

King Chuang of Ch`u-held morning audience until late. Fan-chi
went down the hall to meet him, saying, "How late you have
dismissed court! Are you not hungry and tired?"

King Chuang said, "Today I was listening to loyal and worthwhile
discourse, so that I felt neither hunger nor fatigue."

Fan-chi said, "This person Your Highness speaks of as loyal
and worthy, is he a guest from one of the other feudal lords, or
is he an officer of the Middle Kingdom?"[2]

King Chuang said, "Why it is my Prime Minister Shên."[3]

Fan-chi covered her mouth and laughed.

The king said, "What are you laughing at?"

[Fan-] chi said, "For eleven years I have been privileged to
wait on[4] your Highness when you were bathing and washing
your hair by holding your towel and comb and by spreading your
coverlet and mat. But there was never a time I was not sending
men into Liang and Chêng to seek out beautiful women whom I
could bring into Your Highness's presence. There are ten of
the same rank as myself, and two who are superior to me. Not
that I did not wish to monopolize your affection,[5] but I would
not dare for private motives to keep other beauties in obscurity,
and I want you to see more of them that you may be happy.
Now Prime Minister Shên has been minister in Ch`u for several
years, and I have never seen him advance a worthy man or
retire an undeserving one. So how does he come to be taken for
loyal and worthy?"

At court next morning the King told Prime Minister Shên what
Fan-chi had said. Prime Minister Shên withdrew from his place
and put forward Sun-shu Ao. After [Sun-]shu Ao had governed
Ch`u for three years, the state of Ch`u became hegemon.

The historiographer of Ch`u, taking brush in hand, wrote in the
records, "The hegemony of Ch`u was due to Fan-chi's efforts."

The Ode says,[6]

Fan-chi is an example of this.

5[1]

When Min Tzŭ-ch`ien first appeared before the Master, he had
a hungry look.[2] Later on he had a well-fed look.[3]

Tzŭ-kung asked him, "At first you had a hungry look, while
now you have a well-fed look. Why is this?"

Min-tzŭ said, "I had come out from the `reeds and rushes'[4]
and entered the Master's gate. Now the Master, within, was `cut
and polished'[5] by filial piety, and, without, he displayed for me
the methods of the [ancient] kings (?). In my heart I secretely
rejoiced. I went out and saw plumed chariot canopies and dragon
flags,[6] silken banners and fur garments following one another, and
in my heart I rejoiced also at these. When the two [feelings][7]
were mutually opposed in my breast, I was not able to bear it.
This is why I had a hungry look. By now I have become deeply
imbued with the Master's culture,[8] and, thanks to you gentlemen,
I have been `cut and polished' and brought forward. Inside, I
am clear about what is proper to leave and what to take up.
Outside, the sight of plumed chariot canopies and dragon flags,
fur garments and silken banners following one another is in my

eyes no more than excrement or dirt.[9] This is why I have a well-fed
look."

The Ode says,[10]

6[1]

The chuan says: "How about rain coming after sacrifices for
rain?"

"There is no connection. It is like rain when there have been
no sacrifices."[2]

"When stars fall and trees give out sounds, the people of a
state are all afraid. How about that?"

"These are the changes of heaven and earth, the transformations
of yin and yang, and things that occur but seldom. It is all
right to be astonished at them; to fear them is wrong. Now the
pseudo-eclipse[3] of the sun and of the moon, the unexpected[4]
appearance of strange stars, wind, and rain out of season—there
is no generation that does not at some time have [one of] them. If
those in charge are enlightened and the government is equitable,
though all should occur at once, there would be no harm in it.
If those in charge are ignorant and the government is harsh,
should they all be lacking, still there would be no benefit in it.

Now in regard to disasters in the world, it is evil portents among
men that are most to be feared."

"What do you mean by evil portents among men?"

"Bad plowing harms the crop; bad hoeing harms the harvest.
If the government is harsh,[5] it loses [the support of] the people.
When the fields are overgrown with weeds and the crop is poor,
when grain sells dear and the people are hungry, when there are
dead men in the roads, when bandits and rebels rise up together,
when superior and inferior are at odds, when neighbors treat each
other with violence and those whose gates are on opposite sides
of the street steal from each other, when li and i are not cultivated,[6]
when cattle and horses interbreed and the six domestic
animals[7] produce prodigies, when servants and inferiors slay[8]
their masters, when father and son are suspicious of one another—
these I call evil human portents: they are the products of
disorder."

There is a traditional saying: "The calamities of heaven and
earth are hidden in their [time of] coming[9] and the classical
books[10] do not speak of the prodigies of nature." Transformations
that have no use and calamities that are not impending should
be left alone.[11] But the duties (i) of prince and minister, the
relationship of father and son, and the distinctions between man
and woman[12] —these are to be "cut and polished"[13] and not
neglected.

The Ode says,[14]

7

Confucius said, "If a person's mouth craves flavors and his
heart desires idleness, I would teach him jên. If his heart desires
repose[1] and his body hates exertion, I would teach him respect.
If he is fond of discussion but fears danger, I would teach him
courage. If his eyes like colors and his ears like sounds, I would
teach him i."

The I [ching] says,[2] "He keeps his loins at rest and separates
his ribs[3] [from his body below]. The situation is perilous,[4] and
the heart glows with suppressed excitement."

The Ode says,[5]

These both prohibit license and forbid indulgence; they harmonize
impulse and will.[6]

8[1]

A high wall that is heavy above and built on uneven ground[2]
below will not necessarily collapse. But if rainfall comes, and
the overflowing stream reaches it, then it is sure to collapse the
first thing. Plants whose roots are shallow do not necessarily
become uprooted. But if a gust of wind arises and heavy rain
falls, then they are sure to be uprooted the first thing. If the

prince[3] dwelling in a state[4] does not respect jên and i, or honor
the sage minister and govern affairs with his aid, he will not
necessarily lose [his state]. But one day there will be some unusual
development: the feudal lords fight among themselves; men rush
past, and chariots hasten forward. Suddenly disaster occurs, and
only then for the first time does he experience anxiety. With
parched throat and burning lips he looks up to Heaven and sighs.
Does this help?[5] Though he hope for peace, is it not indeed too
late?

Confucius said, "Not to be careful before the event and afterwards
to repent—alas! even though he repent, it is not enough."

The Ode says,[6]

9[1]

Tsêng-tzŭ said, "The superior man has three sayings worth
being strung together and hung on the belt. The first is, `Do not
by taking in strangers exclude your relatives.' The second is, `[Do
not][2] blame others for your personal defects.' The third is, `[Do
not][2] call on Heaven after grief has come.' "

Tzŭ-kung[3] said, "How is that?"

Tsêng-tzŭ said, "By taking in strangers to exclude relatives—
is this not reversing what should be? Blaming others for personal
defects—is this not going wide of the mark? Calling on Heaven
after grief has come—is this not too late?"

The Ode says,[4]

10[1]

Now frost and snow, rain and dew are the agents that kill and
give life to living things. Heaven has nothing to do with it, yet
we honor Heaven. It is the officials who uphold the law and are
responsible for civil functions who control the offices and the
people. The prince has nothing to do with it, but still we honor
the prince. The one who broke the ground and planted the [five]
cereals was Hou-chi; he who opened [a way for] the Chiang and
caused the River to flow was Yü; the one who heard trials and
kept a mean was Kao-yao. But the one with the reputation of
being a saint[2] is Yao.

Thus if one is possessed of the True Way of ruling, though he
himself lack ability, he will certainly have those with ability to
work for him. If one lacks the True Way of ruling, though he
have a great deal of ability, still it will not help to preserve him.

The Ode says,[3]

The ability to control is honored.

11

According to tradition, Confucius said, "How admirable was
Yen Wu-fu's charioteering! The horse knew that behind there
was a chariot and thought nothing of it; he knew that there was a
man in it, and him he loved. He was attracted by his uprightness
and loved being employed by him. If the horse could speak, he
would certainly have said, `What a pleasure today's gallop is!'

"When we come to Yen Lun there has been a slight decline.
The horse knew that behind there was a chariot and thought

nothing of it; he knew that there was a man in it and him he
respected. The horse was attracted by his uprightness and
accepted respectfully being employed by him. If the horse could
speak, he would certainly have said, `Going and coming, may
this man make use of me.'

"When we come to Yen I the decline is complete. The horse
knew that behind there was a chariot and thought it heavy; he
knew that there was a man in it and him he feared. The horse
was attracted by his uprightness but feared being employed by
him. If the horse could speak, he certainly would have said, `Go
and come, go and come: if you do not go, that man will kill you.'

"Thus in driving horses there is method, and in governing
people there is a right way. If the method is attained to, then the
horse is contented and happy; if the right way is attained to,
then the people are peaceful and tranquil."

The Ode says,[1]

This is illustrated in the above.

12[1]

Yen Yüan was sitting by Duke Ting of Lu[2] on a raised platform,
when Tung-yeh Pi[3] drove his horse [and chariot] past.

Duke Ting said, "How well Tung-yeh Pi drives!"

Yen Yüan said, "He is all right, but his horses are going to
run away."

Duke Ting was not pleased and said to his retainers, "I had
heard that a superior man does not slander people; does he then
really engage in slander?"

Yen Yüan withdrew.

Suddenly a man from the Imperial Stables [came and] announced
that Tung-yeh Pi's horses had run away.[4] Duke Ting
. . . (?)[5] the mat and got up, saying, "Quickly send a chariot
to call back Yen Yüan."

When Yen Yüan arrived, Duke Ting said, "A little while ago
I said, `How well Tung-yeh Pi drives,' and you said, `He is all
right, but his horses are going to run away.' How did you
know it?"

Yen Yüan said, "From [principles of] government I knew it.
In olden times Shun was expert in handling people and Tsao-fu
was expert in handling horses. Shun did not wear out his people
and Tsao-fu did not drive his horses to the limit. Hence, under
Shun the people did not break down, and under Tsao-fu, horses
did not run away. Now as to Tung-yeh Pi's driving,[6] in mounting
the chariot and holding the bridle, his style of managing was correct.
In his evolutions and rushes, he was in complete accord with
court ceremony (li).[7] But from going through danger and traveling
far he had exhausted the horses' strength; yet still he beat
them without cease. Therefore I knew they would run away."

Duke Ting said, "Good. Can you drive the point a little
further?"[8]

Yen Yüan said, "If an animal is pushed to extremity, he will
bite; in the same circumstances a bird will peck,[9] and a man will
practice treachery. Since antiquity to the present day it has
never happened that reducing the people to extremity has not
been dangerous. The Ode says,[10]

Good driving is illustrative of this."

Duke Ting said, "I was at fault."

13[1]

After Ts`ui Chu had assassinated Duke Chuang,[2] he ordered[3]
the nobles and Great Officers to make a covenant with him. The
covenanters all had laid aside their swords before entering. Those
who did not speak quickly or who did not touch the blood with
their fingers were put to death.[4]

Over ten men had been killed when it came to Yen-tzŭ's turn.
He raised up the cup of blood, and, facing Heaven, said with a
sign, "Alas! that Ts`ui Chu has been so unrighteous as to slay
his prince!" Whereupon the covenanters all looked at him.[5]

Ts`ui Chu said to Yen-tzŭ, "If you help me, I will share the
state with you. If you do not help me, I will kill you: A straight

sword will pierce you, and a curved one will hook you. I hope
you will think about it."

Yen-tzŭ said, "I have heard[6] that he who, being deterred by
profit, is unfaithful to his prince lacks jên, and he who permits
himself to be forced by weapons to abandon his determination
lacks courage. The Ode says,[7]

Can I be crooked, then? Straight swords may pierce me and
curved ones may hook me, but I will not change."

Ts`ui Chu said, "Let Yen-tzŭ go."

Yen-tzŭ got up and went out. Taking the traces of the carriage
harness, he mounted the chariot. His servant wanted to drive
fast, but Yen-tzŭ clapped his hands and said, "The deer in the
mountain forest—his fate is in the kitchen. Our fates are dependent
on something, but how on hasty driving?" He proceeded
peacefully, with calm demeanor, and so left. The Ode says,[9]

Yen-tzŭ is an example of this.

14[1]

King Chao of Ch`u had an officer named Shih Shê,[2] who was
characterized by his impartiality and love of the right, and the
king made him a judge.[3] At this time someone killed a man on

the highway. When Shih Shê went in pursuit of him, it turned
out to be his father.

He returned to the court and said, "The person who killed the
man was my father. To sacrifice one's father to perfect one's
administration is not filial; not to put in operation the laws of
one's prince is not loyal. My duty is to submit to punishment for
having overlooked his crime and disregarded the law." He prostrated
himself before the axe and execution block saying, "My
life is in your hands."

The prince said, "You pursued him without catching him;
how can there be any blame? May you go on with your work."

Shih Shê said, "Not so. Not to be partial to one's father is
not filial; not to carry out the laws of one's prince is not loyal.
To go on living when guilty of a crime deserving death is not
honest. If Your Highness wishes to grant a pardon, it is the grace
of a superior; but I cannot neglect the laws: such is the duty (i)
of an inferior."

Whereupon he would not leave the axe and execution block,
but cutting his throat, died in the court.

When the superior man hears of this, he says, "Pure and lawabiding—such
was Master Shih."

Confucius said,[4] "The father conceals the misconduct of the
son, and the son conceals the misconduct of the father. Uprightness
is to be found in this."

The Ode says,[5]

Master Shih is an example of this.

15[1]

With others generous and within himself strict; putting himself
in harmony with the right,[2] he was strict with himself without

being strict with others; not uneasy though [his] good qualities
were not appreciated: such was the conduct of Ch`ü Po-yü.
Hence those who were fathers wanted him for a son, and those
who were sons wanted him for a father; princes wanted him for
a subject, and subjects wanted him for a prince. His fame was
bright among the feudal lords, and the empire longed for him.

The Ode says,[3]

Such is the conduct of the superior man.

16[1]

There is the following traditional story. When Confucius met
Ch`êng Pên-tzŭ of Ch`i in the region of Yen, they put down the
canopies [of their chariots] and talked for the rest of the day.
After some time[2] [Confucius] turned to Tzu-lŭ and said, "Yu,
[bring][3] ten rolls of silk[4] and present them to this gentleman."

Tzu-lŭ did not reply. After some time he again turned and
said, "Yu, [bring] ten rolls of silk and present them to this
gentleman."

Tzŭ-lu replied abruptly,[5] "I once heard you say, Master, that

the superior man does not approve of gentlemen's meeting without
introduction,[6] nor of a woman's marrying without an intermediary."

Confucius said, "Does not the Ode say,[7]

What is more, Ch`êng Pên-tzŭ of Ch`i is one of the sages of the
empire. If on this occasion I do not make him a present, to the
end of my life I will never [dare to] see him [again]. When a
person does not transgress the boundary line in the great virtues,
he may pass and repass it in the small virtues."[9]

17[1]

The superior man has a mind devoted to the good, but he has
not the air of [striving to] surpass other men. His moral power
is sufficient for him to rule over the empire, but he lacks an
overbearing demeanor. His conduct is sufficient to reach to later
generations, but not with a single word does he find fault with
another man for not being good.

Truly it is said, "The superior man is filled with moral power
but is humble. He empties himself to receive [the influences of]
others; he acts according to the exigency of circumstances without
being carried away by their current;[2] he adapts himself to things
but is never exhausted. Though he may occupy a lowly position,

the people will want to hold him up; though he may wish to be
without honors, can he do it?

The Ode says,[3]

18[1]

The superior man makes acquaintances easily, but it is difficult
to be familiar with him. He is easily alarmed, but he cannot be
forced. He fears suffering, but he would not avoid dying for
the right (i). He desires what is advantageous, but he would not
do what he considers wrong. In his relations he is friendly but
not disrespectful;[2] in speech he makes clear distinctions, but not
so as to confuse the issue. How great! His i[3] cannot be surpassed.[4]
How satisfying![5] He is scrupulous and yet causes no
harm. How mild! The brilliance[6] of his jên and generosity is
great. How he excels! He has that which distinguishes him from
other men.

The Ode says,[7]

19

Shang Jung[1] had once held the feather and flute.[2] Relying on
horse and foot soldiers, he wished to attack[3] [the tyrant] Chou,
but was unable to do so. As a result he went into hiding in T`aihsing.
When King Wu conquered Yin and set himself up as Son
of Heaven, he wished to make [him] a san-kung.[4] Shang Jung
refused, saying, "I once relied on horse and foot soldiers, wishing
to attack [the tyrant] Chou, but was unable to do so. That was
stupidity. That I went into hiding without fighting was due to a
lack of courage. Stupidity and a lack of courage are not sufficient
qualifications for a san-kung." He persisted in his refusal
to the end and would not accept the king's command.

On hearing of this, the superior man says, "Of Shang Jung
it can be said that having examined himself[5] he did not falsely
represent his abilities. He was a superior man indeed. He put
away from himself unearned food." The Ode says,[6]

Master Shang is an example of this.

20[1]

Duke[2] Wên of Chin had appointed Li Li to be chief judge.[3]
For having wrongly permitted a man to be killed[4] he put himself
under arrest in the court and asked for death from the prince.

The prince said, "Just as there are high and low officials, so
there are light and severe punishments. The inferior officer is
guilty; it is not your guilt."

Li Li replied, "In occupying my office as chief, I did not make
way for inferior officers; in receiving a greater salary[5] I did not
share the profit with the inferior officers. Now when I have
wrongly permitted a man to be put to death, that an inferior
officer should be responsible for his death is unheard of." He
[refused[6] and] did not accept the command.

The prince said, "If you insist on[7] considering yourself guilty,
then I likewise am guilty."

Li Li said, "When the laws are violated, punishment should
follow:[8] when punishments are misapplied, death should be the
result. Your Highness thought me able to judge obscure cases and
to decide doubtful ones, and so you made me a judge. Now I have
wrongly permitted a man to be killed; my crime merits death."[9]

The prince said, "That you should leave your position, abandon
your rank, suffer the working of the law, and be lost to the state[10]
is not what I had wished for. Go quickly and do not bother me."

Li Li replied, "Your Highness' worries are disorder in government
and danger to the state. When his army is defeated and
his troops are in confusion, the general is worried. Now to serve
one's prince when one lacks ability, or to hold an office through
shady actions is to receive one's salary without deserving it. I am
not one to deceive myself with my worthlessness." Whereupon
he fell upon his sword and died.

When the superior man hears of this he says, "Indeed he was
loyal."

The Ode says,[11]

Master Li is an example of this.

21[1]

Chieh-yü, the madman of Ch`u, tilled the fields with his own
hands for food. [One day] his wife had gone to the market and
had not yet returned. The King of Ch`u sent a messenger with
a present of one hundred i[2] of gold to his gate. [The messenger]
said, "The great king has sent me to offer one hundred i of gold
and wishes to request you, sir, to administer Huai-nan."[3]

Chieh-yü laughed but would not assent. The messenger in the
end left without a definite answer from him.

When Chieh-yü's wife came back from the market, she said,
"When you were young, you practiced your principles (i); why
do you abandon them as you grow older? How is it that the
carriage tracks[4] outside the gate are so deep?"

Chieh-yü said, "Today the king sent a messenger to offer me
one hundred i of gold, wishing to have me administer Huai-nan."[3]

His wife said, "You did not consent?"

He said, "I did not!"

His wife said, "When the prince wants to employ you, not to
obey is disloyal, while to obey is to abandon your principles (i).
It is best we go away."

Whereupon the husband shouldered the boilers and pots, and
the wife carried the loom[5] on her head. They changed their names
so that no one knew where they went.

The Lun yü says,[6] "seeing the countenance, she instantly rises.
She flies round, and by and by settles." Chieh-yü's wife was
like this.

The Ode says,[7]

22[1]

Of old Chieh made a wine pond with dikes made of the dregs
while he gave free rein to lascivious music.[2] There were 3000
[men][3] who drank [from the pond] like cattle. The ministers
clutched one another and sang,

They also said,

I-yin realized that the mandate of heaven[8] was about to be
withdrawn.[9] Lifting a beaker, he approached Chieh and said, "If
Your Majesty does not listen to his servant's words, the mandate
of heaven will be withdrawn[9] and the day of disaster not far off."

Chieh clapped his hands with a smack and noisily laughed,
saying, "So you too speak of evil omens. My possessing the
empire is like the sky's having a sun; is the sun [ever] destroyed?
When the sun is destroyed, then I shall be destroyed too."[10]

Thereupon I-yin made haste without stopping until he came to
T`ang, who made him his minister. It can be said that he "went
to that happy land and there found his place."

The Ode says,[11]

23[1]

I-yin left Hsia and joined Yin. T`ien Jao left Lu and went to
Yen. Chieh Tzŭ-t`ui left Chin and retired to the mountains.[2]
T`ien Jao served Duke Ai of Lu, but was not noticed. He[3] said
to Duke Ai, "I am going to leave Your Highness for a heron
flight."

Duke Ai said, "What do you mean?"

He said, "Has Your Highness never seen the cock? On his
head he wears a cap: he has civil culture. To his legs are attached
spurs: he is possessed of martial qualities. Faced with an enemy,
he dares fight: he has courage. When he gets[4] food, he calls his
companions: he has fellow-feeling (jên). When he keeps watch
at night, he does not miss the time: he is trustworthy. The cock
is possessed of these five virtues, [yet] Your Highness still has him
boiled and eats him every day. Why is this? It is because the
place he has come from is near at hand.

Now take the heron: he goes a thousand li at a flight and stops

at the pond in Your Highness' garden. He eats your fish and
turtles and pecks up your wheat and millet.[5] He lacks these five
[virtues], yet Your Highness honors him[6] because the place he
has come from is far away. I am going to leave Your Highness
for a heron flight."

Duke Ai said, "Wait while I write down your words."

T`ien Jao said, "I have heard that one who eats another's food
should not damage the vessels it is served in, and that one taking
shelter under a tree should not break off its branches. Why then
write down the words of a minister of whom you have made no
use?"

In the end he left and went to Yen. Yen made him minister,
and within three years the government of Yen was in order and
the country was without thieves or bandits.

Duke Ai heaved a great sigh, and because of that occurrence
kept away from the inner rooms for three months. He abolished
the punishment of branding and cutting off the nose, saying, "If
care were not exercised before, and there was [reason] for regret
afterwards, how could replacement be made?" The Ode says,[7]

24[1]

When Tzŭ-chien[2] was administering Shan-fu, he played the

lute[3] without descending from the hall, and still Shan-fu was in
order. Wu-ma Ch`i went out [to his duties] while the stars were
[still] out and did not return until they had again come out [at
night]. Day and night he gave himself no rest, taking care of
everything in person, and Shan-fu likewise was in order.

Wu-ma Ch`i asked Tzŭ-chien about it, and Tzŭ-chien said,
"I use men, while you use strength. He who uses men is at ease,
while he who uses strength must labor."

People[4] therefore called Tzŭ-chien a superior man. While he
rested his four limbs, preserved his sight and hearing, kept his
mind and spirit quiet, the various officers still were in order. All
he did was to make use of their numbers.[5] Wu-ma Ch`i however
did not do this. He misused his own nature and made himself a
slave of his feelings,[6] putting his effort into instructions and
orders. Although there was order, there was not perfection. The
Ode says,[7]

25[1]

Tzŭ-lu said, "If a gentleman who was unable to be assiduous
and work hard, or think lightly of death, or endure poverty, were
to say, `I [am able to][2] do my duty (i),' I would not believe him.
Formerly Shên Pao-hsü stood seven days and nights in the court
at Ch`in weeping without once stopping, and so preserved Ch`u.

Had he not been able to be assiduous and work hard, how could
he have brought this about? Pi-kan in the face of death remonstrated
the more loyally. Although Po-i and Shu-ch`i starved in
Shou-yang, their determination showed but the stronger. Had
they not been able to think lightly of death, how could they
have acted thus? Tsêng-tzŭ, whose coarse clothes and worn
hempen garments[3] were never whole, who never got to eat his
fill of his diet of coarse rice and millet,[4] still refused to be prime
minister when [the position] was incompatible with his principles
(i). Had he not been able to endure poverty, how could he have
acted thus? Now if a gentleman wishes to establish himself and
practice the True Way, he will be able to do it only if he pays
no regard to the difficulties involved. If he wishes to fulfill his
duty (i) and make his name known, he will be able to do it only
if he pays no attention to profit or loss."

The Ode says,[5]

Except for a superior man of fine generosity and self-cultivation,[6]
who can partake of [such praise]?[7]

26

Tzŭ-lu was gathering firewood with Wu-ma Ch`i at the foot of
Mt. Yün. Among the rich men of Ch`ên there was one named

Ch`u-shih with a hundred decorated chariots, who gave himself up
to feasting on [Mt.] Yün.[1]

Tzŭ-lu said to Wu-ma Ch`i, "If, without forgetting what you
[now] know, but also without advancing any in what you [now]
are capable of, you attained to such wealth as this, provided you
would never get to go back and see the Master again, would you
do it?"

Wu-ma Ch`i, looking toward Heaven with a deep sigh, stopped[2]
and threw his sickle to the ground saying, "I have heard from
the Master that a brave gentleman never forgets that he may lose
his head, while the determined gentleman or the man endowed
with jên never forgets [that his end may be] in a ditch or a stream.[3]
Is it that you do not know me? Or are you trying me? Or is it
perhaps your own intention?"

Tzŭ-lu was mortally ashamed and,[4] shouldering his firewood,
went home first.

Confucius said, "Well, Yu,[5] why do you come back first when
you went out in company?"

Tzŭ-lu said, "A while ago I was gathering firewood with Wu-ma
Ch`i at the foot of Mt. Yün. Among the rich men of Ch`ên
there is one named Ch`u-shih with a hundred decorated chariots,
who has given himself up to feasting on Mt. Yün. I said to Wu-ma
Ch`i, `If, without forgetting what you [now] know, but also without
advancing any in what you [now] are capable of, you attained
to such wealth as this, provided you would never get to go back
and see the Master again, would you do it?' And Wu-ma Ch`i,
looking toward Heaven with a deep sigh, stopped and threw his
sickle to the ground, saying, `I have heard from the Master that
a brave gentleman never forgets that he may lose his head, while

the determined gentleman or the man endowed with jên never
forgets [that his end may be] in a ditch or a stream. Is it that
you do not know me? Or are you trying me? Or is it perhaps
your own intention?' I was mortally ashamed, and so it was
that I shouldered my firewood and came back first."

Confucius took up his lute and played on it, singing the Ode,[6]

Shall my way not be practiced? If you are willing. . . ."[8]

27

Confucius said, "There are five [kinds of] gentlemen. There
are those whose power is honored, those whose families are
wealthy, those whose disposition is bold, those whose minds are
keen,[1] and those whose appearance is handsome. Those whose
power is honored[2] do not make use of it to love the people, or to
carry out their obligations (i), or to practice right principles, but
on the contrary are overbearing [and oppressive][3] on account of
it. Those whose families are wealthy do not use [their wealth] to
help the poor and aid the destitute, but on the contrary use it
to be wasteful and extravagant without measure. Those whose
disposition is bold do not make use of it to guard their prince and
attack in battle, but on the contrary they make use of it for
usurpation and private quarrels. Those whose minds are keen[1]

do not use them to rectify calculations, but on the contrary they
use them to practise deceit and gloss over dishonesty. Those
whose appearance is handsome do not use it in unifying the court
and managing the people, but on the contrary use it to bewitch
women and make them accede to their desire. These five types of
so-called gentlemen are neglecting their fine qualities."

The Ode says,[4]

28

In meeting someone of superior qualities, his appearance is
what one first notices;[1] next is his voice, and last of all his conduct.
Hence from afar one sees from his general appearance that he is
fit to be a ruler of men. On approaching nearer, his face is one to
inspire confidence. The words that come from [his mouth] are
quieting and to the point.[2] His conduct is refined and worth
observing.[3] Hence as for the external appearance of the superior
man, the empire takes it as a model and looks up to it, [considering]
that he is recognizable as a ruler of men without having
recourse to his language.[4]

The Ode says,[5]

29[1]

When Tzŭ-hsia had completed his reading of the Odes,[2] the
Master asked him, "What can you say about the Odes?"[3]

Tzŭ-hsia replied, "In their treatment of situations, the Odes
are brilliant, with a radiant brightness[4] like that of the sun and
moon; they are lustrous as the stars in their alternating progress.
On the one hand they contain the Way of Yao and Shun; on the
other they have the i of the Three Kings.[5] What your disciple
[has learned from his Master, he has engraved on his heart and][6]
dares not forget. Even though I were dwelling in poverty,[7] I
would sing to the accompaniment of the lute of the lessons of the
former kings. Were there others with me, I should enjoy them;
without company I would still enjoy them, and become so excited
as to forget food.[8]

The Ode says,[9]

The Master suddenly changed countenance and said "Ah sir,
now you can discuss the Odes.[11] But as yet[12] you have seen only
the externals and not what is within."

Yen Yüan said, "Having finished with the externals, what more
is there to see within?"

Confucius said, "If you peep through the door without entering,
how can you know where its hidden treasures are? But that they
are hidden is not what is difficult. I have entered[13] into them [by
dint of] great effort and intense application. In front [it is as
though they were] a high cliff: behind, a deep valley, so that I
could only stand solemnly erect.[14] One who does not see what
lies within cannot be called refined or profound [in his understanding
of the Odes]."

30

According to tradition, in a state that is without the True
Way there will be whirlwinds and pestilence; torrential rains will
break down the trees. Yin and yang will emit a perverted emanation;
summer will be cold and winter warm; ripening[1] will be in
spring and growth in autumn; sun and moon will have no brightness;
stars and constellations will go astray;[2] the people will suffer
from many diseases; the state will endure many inauspicious
things; human beings will not live out their span, and the five
grains will not ripen.[3] In the time of Ch`êng-chou, yin and yang

were adjusted, cold and heat were regulated, manking was perfect
and all things were tranquil. Truly it is said that their customs
were ordered, their joy was continuous, their driving of horses
was humane.[4] The people were yielding, their movements dignified,
and their thoughts happy. The Ode says,[5]

31[1]

Methods of controlling the breath and nourishing the mind:[2]
If one's physical powers are hard and refractory,[3] soften[4] them
by harmonizing them. If one's knowledge is profound, unify it
through control and faith. If through courage and resolution one
is cruel and unyielding, aid him with methods of instruction. If
clever and quick,[5] quiet him with rest and retirement. If mean
and avaricious, elevate him with high aims. If mediocre and
worthless[6] purge him through the medium of teacher and friends.
If remiss and depreciatory, frighten[7] him with disaster. If good
and upright, integrate him with ritual (li) and music.

In general the most direct way to control the breath and
nourish the mind is to follow ritual (li); the most important thing
is to get a teacher; the most prudent thing is to love but one
thing. From loving one thing comes breadth, from breadth
essence, from essence spirituality, from spirituality transformation.
It is for this reason the superior man devotes himself to binding
his mind to the one.

The Ode says,[8]

32[1]

If jade is not polished, it will not be a perfect vessel; if a man
is not taught, his will not be perfect conduct. Though you have in
your house jade worth a thousand [pieces of] gold, you still will
be poor unless you know how to handle it. If a good craftsman
works on it, then it will be valued and handed down to posterity.
When a superior man studies,[2] then he is of use to the state.
Truly in his movements he makes the people easy, and his deliberations
result in an extension of human life.

The Ode says,[3]

33[1]

The family of a woman who has been given in marriage does

not extinguish the light for three nights: [this is because] they are
thinking of the separation. The family [whose son] has taken a
wife does not make music for three days: [this is because] they
are thinking that he [soon] will succeed his father. For this reason
in the ceremony (li) of marriage, congratulations are not offered,
since the generation of men [is about to change]. After three
months [the bride] is presented in the ancestral temple and announced
as the [newly] arrived wife [of the son]. On the following
day she is presented to her father-in-law and mother-in-law, who
descend from the steps on the west; the bride descends[2] from
the steps on the east and is led into her own apartments. Sad
thoughts for three days and abstinence from killing for three
months are due to the feelings of the filial son. Truly ceremony
(li) is ordered after men's feelings.

The Ode says,[3]

It speaks of the many ceremonials.

34[1]

By investigating the will of Heaven and controlling the workings
of the mind, by putting in order likes and dislikes and making
emotions and one's own nature agree, control of the True Way
is achieved. By investigating the Will of Heaven, one avoids
being confused about disaster and good fortune. When one is not
confused about disaster and good fortune, activity accords with
reason.[2] When one controls the workings of the mind, one is
not happy or angry without cause. When one is not happy or

angry without cause, in rewards and punishments there is no
favoritism. When likes and dislikes are put in order, one does not
covet what is useless. When what is useless is not coveted, one
does not do violence to one's nature through attachment to
things.[3] When the emotions and one's own nature are made to
agree, desires do not exceed proper limits. When desires do not
exceed proper limits,[4] one's own nature is nourished and one
knows enough to be content. These four are not to be sought
outside, nor are they to be derived from another. Turn to yourself
for them and there they are. Such a man is one to delight
others (?).[5] His very aspect is that of jên and i; his acts are law
and order.

The Ode says,[6]