University of Virginia Library

CHAPTER V

1

Tzŭ-hsia asked, "Why is the kuan-chü made to begin the "Kuo-fêng"
[section of the Odes]?"

Confucius said, "The kuan-chü is perfection.[1] Now in its relation
to man,[2] the kuan-chü above is like Heaven; below it is like
Earth. Mysterious and dark is the virtue it hides; abundant and
rich the Way it puts into practice. Its transformations are like
those of the supernatural dragon.[3] It is complete in its brilliancy
and order. Oh great is the Way of the kuan-chü! It is that which
connects all things and on which the life of human beings is
dependent.[4]

"The Ho and the Lo [Rivers] gave forth the writing and the
diagram;[5] the lin and the phoenix frequented[6] the suburbs:[7] by
what means could this be brought about except by following the
Way[8] of the kuan-chü, and by taking the subject of the kuan-chü
for a model?[9] Now the writings of the Six Classics[10] all are
devoted to exhaustive discussion, but they derive [their matter]
from the kuan-chü. The subject of the kuan-chü is great! Vast

and soaring, `from the east to the west, from the south to the
north, there is not a thought but does it homage.'[11] May you exert
yourself [to emulate it], and cherish it in thought.[12] Neither
human beings between Heaven and Earth nor the origin of the
Kingly Way are outside its compass."

Tzŭ-hsia sighed deeply and said, "Great indeed is the kuan-chü;
it is the [very] foundation of Heaven and Earth."

The Ode says,[13]

2

Confucius had the heart of a saint. He moved about in the
realm of the Way and of Virtue; he wandered in the province of
the formless. He regarded human emotions in the light of eternal
principles.[1] He understood beginning and end; he comprehended
success and failure. Truly he made jên and i flourish and kept
down opportunism and materialism; by so doing he maintained
and nourished his [sage-heart]. In his time the House of Chou
was failing and the Kingly Way had been broken off. The feudal
lords governed by force, the strong robbed the weak, the rich
oppressed the poor, the people had no peace, and no one made
rules for them. Li and i being destroyed, human relationships were
not regulated. Whereupon Confucius "From the west to the east,
from the south to the north,[2] crawled on his knees to help them."[3]

3[1]

Under the government of a True King, promotion of the sage
and the able does not wait on seniority, and dismissal of unworthy
persons takes place without a moment's delay. Punishment of a
chief criminal does not wait on instruction,[2] nor does the reform
of the ordinary man wait on his being perfect.[3] Before distinctions
are established, there are natural gradations.[4] Though a person
be the descendant of a duke, minister, or great officer, if his
conduct breaks the rules of li and i,[5] he is put back to the rank of
a commoner. [Though a person be descended from the common
people, if he amasses learning,[6] rectifies his conduct, and becomes
capable of li and i,[7] then he is put up among the gentlemen and
great officers. People[8] who are upset are taken in charge and
tested. People who are not upright are put on probation.[9] If
they become tractable, they are supported; if not, they are banished.][10]
[As for those afflicted with one of the five defects,][11]

the ruler receives and employs them; he gives them office and
feeds and clothes them. Covering all[12] he neglects none. But if
a gifted person transgresses [deliberately] against the proper season,
he is put to death without reprieve,[13] and it is said that
Heaven has punished[14] him. Such is the government of a True
King. The Ode says,[15]

4[1]

The prince is the source of the people. If the source is pure
the stream will be pure, but if the source is muddy the stream will
be muddy. Hence the ruler who is unable to love his people and
who yet looks for the people to cherish and love himself, [is expecting]
the impossible. If, when the people neither cherish nor
love him, he expects them to work for him and to die for him,
[he is expecting] the impossible. If, when the people will not work
for him and will not die for him, he expects his army to be strong
and his walls to be stout, [he is expecting] the impossible. If, when
his army is not strong and his walls are not stout, he hopes to
avoid danger and destruction, [he is hoping for] the impossible.
Now when all the circumstances of danger and destruction are
concentrated together here, is it not hard to conceive of looking
for peace and happiness? This is to be born in vain. Alas, he who
is born in vain perishes before long.

Hence if a ruler wishes strength and solidarity, peace and happiness,
he had best turn to himself. If he wishes to gain the submission
of his subordinates and unite the people, he had best
extend[2] to them [good] government. If he wishes to improve his
government and elevate customs, he had best seek out the right
man.

That "right man" is one who, born in the present age, fixes
his mind on the Way[3] of ancient times. None of the nobles of
the empire may like a thing, but this one alone likes it; none of the
people may act, but this one alone will act; or those who will act
are exhausted, and this one alone will act without a moment's
delay or error. It is he alone who understands how the former
kings succeeded and how they failed;[4] [it is he] who recognizes
peace and danger, security and its opposite in a state as easily as
he distinguishes black and white: such is the right man.

If a ruler wishes strength and solidarity, peace and happiness,
he had best act in conjunction with the right man. If he uses
him more, the empire will be unified and the feudal lords will
become his servants; if he uses him less, his prestige [still] will
overawe neighboring states, while none will be able to conquor
him. Yin's use of I-yin, Chou's meeting with [and employing]
T`ai-kung can be called examples of using [the right man] more.
Ch`i's use of Kuan Chung and Ch`u's use of Sun-shu Ao can be
called examples of using [the right man] less. Using him more
[gives results] as in the first cases, and using him less as in the
last.[5] Truly it is said [of a ruler who employs the right man], that
consistently using him he becomes a true king, partly [using him],
he becomes a hegemon, while without a single such person he will
lose his kingdom.[6] The Ode says,[7]

There have never been any who, not employing good ministers,
were not lost.

5[1]

Tsao-fu was the best charioteer in the world, but without chariot
and horses he would have had no way to show his ability. Yi
was the best archer in the world, but without bow and arrow he
would have had no way to show his skill. The Great Confucian
is one who puts the empire into harmony, but without [at least]
a hundred li of territory he will have no way to show his merits.
Now a person with a strong chariot and select horses who is unable
to go a thousand li is no Tsao-fu; one with adjusted bow and
straight arrows who is unable to shoot far and hit a small mark
is no Yi; and one with a hundred li of land who is unable to put
the empire into harmony and control the four barbarians is no
Great Confucian.

The Great Confucian may live in retirement in a miserable hut
in a back alley, without the slightest holding of land, but still
the nobles will be unable to contest his fame.[2] When he has a
hundred li of territory, a state of a thousand li will be unable to
contest his superiority. He castigates aggressive states, unites the
empire, and none can overthrow him: such is the merit of the
Great Confucian. His speech is appropriate, and his conduct is
in accord with li. He has no reason to regret what he does. His
conduct in dangerous situations[3] and his adaptations to changed
circumstances are appropriate in the smallest detail. He moves
with the times and changes with the world. Through the multiplicity
of beginnings and the infinity of changes[4] his Way is
single: such is the Great Confucian.

In this way there are ordinary people, ordinary Confucians,
refined Confucians, and Great Confucians. His ear does not
listen to learning, in conduct he lacks correctness and i; he is so
confused that he takes wealth and gain to be the most important
things: such is the ordinary man.

He wears large [-sleeved] gowns[5] and broad sashes; he roughly
models himself on the former kings, but is inadequate in a time
of confusion.[6] His method is faulty and his studies eclectic; although
his attire and conduct[7] have become identical with the
vulgar usage of the time, he does not know that they are wrong.
In light conversation or serious discussion, since he differs not at
all from Lao[-tzŭ] and Mo[-tzŭ], he does not know how to make
distinctions: such is the ordinary Confucian.

He patterns himself after the former kings and unifies institutions;
as concerns speech and conduct, he is in possession of the
Great Method, but his understanding does not suffice to help
him where rules and instructions do not reach and where his
experience does not extend. When he knows a thing, he holds
that he knows it, and when he does not know a thing he admits
that he does not know it.[8] Within, he does not cheat himself;
outside, he does not cheat others. For this reason he esteems the
sages and honors the law, not daring to be disrespectful concerning
them: such is the refined Confucian.

He models himself on the former kings and relies upon li and i.
From the restricted he grasps the extended, and from the single
he puts into action the multiple. In matters of jên and i, even
among birds and beasts, he makes distinctions as clearly as between
black and white. When outlandish creatures or strange
transformations[9] which he has never seen or heard of suddenly
come to light somewhere, without depending on any outside help,
he produces a comprehensive category that takes care of them,
and pulls out[10] a law which measures them as exactly as [the
two parts of] a tally fit [together]: such is the Great Confucian.

Hence if a ruler uses common men, it will result in the loss of

his state [though it be one] of ten thousand chariots. If he uses
an ordinary Confucian, his state of ten thousand chariots will be
preserved. If he uses a refined Confucian, his state, [though it
consist of only] a thousand li [of territory], will be at peace. If he
uses a Great Confucian, with a territory of [no more than] one
hundred li, in three years at the longest,[11] the feudal lords of the
empire will be his subjects. Should he use him in a state of ten
thousand chariots, he would be established as soon as he began
to act; in one day he would be famous.[12] The Ode says,[13]
This can be called fame,[14] and King Wên can certainly be called
a Great Confucian.

6[1]

King Ch`êng of Ch`u[2] was reading in the hall, and at work
below was Lun-pien,[3] who asked, "What is the book Your Highness
is reading?"

King Ch`êng said, "It is a book of the Former Sages."

Lun-pien said, "It is certainly only the dregs of the Former
Sages, and not their essence."

King Ch`êng said, "What grounds have you for saying that?"

Lun-pien said, "Let us put it in terms of the wheels I make.
With the compass I make them round, and with a square I make
them straight. These [techniques] I can pass on to my sons and

grandsons. But when it comes to bringing three pieces of wood
together, there is a response in the heart and a movement in the
body which there is no way to transmit. Hence what has been
transmitted is certainly nothing but the dregs. Thus it is possible
to examine[4] the methods of T`ang and Yü,[5] but there is no
attaining to their illumination of men's hearts. The Ode says,[6]
Who can attain to this?"

7[1]

Confucius was studying the lute under the music master Hsiang-tzŭ,[2]
but made no progress. Master Hsiang-tzŭ said, "It is within
your power, sir, to make progress."

Confucius said, "I have already grasped the melody, but as
yet I have not got the structure [of this music]."

After a while [Hsiang-tzŭ] said, "It is within your power, sir,
to make [more] progress."

[Confucius] said, "I have already grasped the structure, but
as yet I do not have its meaning."

After a while [Hsiang-tzŭ] again said, "It is within your power,
sir, to make [more] progress," and [Confucius] said, ["I have
already got its meaning, but I have not yet got the man."

After a while (Hsiang-tzŭ) again said, "It is within your
power, sir, to make (more) progress," and (Confucius) said,][3]

"I have already got the man [who composed the piece], but
I still have not managed to place him." For a while he gazed
off into the distance, lost in deep thought. Then he said,[4] "Pensive
and majestic is he who must have composed this music. Darkly
black,[5] and grandly tall[6] he rules the empire and attracts to his
court the feudal lords: it can be no other than King Wên."

Master Hsiang-tzŭ withdrew from the mat, bowed twice, and
said, "Good. Music masters attribute this song to King Wên."

So it was that Confucius, in apprehending the sounds [composed
by] King Wên knew what he must be like as a man.

Master Hsiang-tzŭ said, "I venture to ask how you knew the
song was by King Wên?"

Confucius said, "A man characterized by jên values repression;[7]
(?) a harmonious man values decoration; a wise man values simplicity,[8]
(?) and a man with the intention of being sincere values
beauty. (??) This is how I knew it was song by King Wên."[9]

Traditionally,[10] that man is a saint who penetrates to the true
nature of a thing from having experienced [only] its external
manifestations.

8[1]

As ruler [the tyrant] Chou put the people's strength to work,[2]

and imposed unjust and cruel commands on the populace, while
lamentable and wicked deeds were loosed upon the great ministers.
His underlings were not trustworthy, and the people were bitter
and resentful. For these reasons the empire rebelled, wishing to
be under King Wên; [the tyrant] Chou brought it on himself.
Though he had the rank of emperor and the wealth of the empire,[3]
when the armies of Chou arrived, his commands were not carried
out by his attendants. Alas, in that time [of extremity], though
he had sought [the status of] an ordinary man, he could not have
achieved [so much]. The Ode says,[4]

9[1]

Though the five colors[2] be brilliant, at times they will fade;
the luxuriant [foliage] of a tree[3] in season will fall. Living things
have [their periods of] growth and decay; they do not attain constancy.
So the Way of the Three Kings: made to revolve, it
returns to its original state; pushed to the extreme, it reverts to its
fundamental basis. It is not merely a matter of change for its
own sake, but it is to rectify[4] evil and support the weak, eliminate

error and overcome the false, to harmonize yin and yang and to
act in agreement with the proclivities of all things. The Ode says,[5]

10[1]

Li resembles the form of Heaven and Earth.[2] While [li] is in
accord with human feelings, it goes on to bring them under
control.[3] Without li, how would it be possible to rectify oneself?
Without a teacher, how can one know the correctness of li? If
you approve of what li approves, it is because your feelings are at
rest in li. If you speak as your teacher speaks, it is because your
knowledge is equal to your teacher's. When your feelings are at
rest in li and your knowledge is equal to your teacher's, then[4]
yours is the way of the superior man. When words correspond
with reason and conduct is in accordance with the true principle,[5]
the empire is in accord. The Ode says,[6]

11

If superiors do not know enough to be obedient and filial, the
people will not know enough to revert to the fundamental; if the
prince does not know enough to revere the aged, the people will
not know enough to honor their parents. If the sacrifices are not
reverently carried out, and hills and streams lose their seasonal
[offerings], the people will have no [sense of] fear. If they are
punished without instruction,[1] the people will not respond to
admonition. Hence when the ruler improves himself until he is
[wholly] filial, the people do not rebel. When reverence and filial
piety penetrate to [the masses] below, the people know about
love for parents. [The differences between] good and evil is made
clear among the populace, and inferiors respond to their superiors
like shadow or echo. This is the essential method for simultaneously
governing the empire, establishing [all] within the seas, and
making subjects of the people; it is one that the enlightened king
or the sage ruler cannot for one moment neglect. The Ode says,[2]

12[1]

In King Ch`êng's time there were three sprouts that grew up
through a mulberry [leaf][2] and united to put forth a single ear
of grain large enough nearly to fill a cart and long enough nearly
to cover the bed of a wagon. King Ch`êng asked the Duke of
Chou, "What is this thing?"

The Duke of Chou said, "It seems to me that three sprouts

united into a single ear of grain [means] that the empire is now
about to become unified."

Three years after this in fact[3] the ruler of Yüeh-shang[4] [sent
a mission] with nine interpreters[5] to present[6] to the Duke of
Chou some white pheasants. [The envoy said,][7] "So distant was
the road, so secluded[8] the mountains and so deep the rivers, that
it was feared an envoy[9] would not reach here without the aid of
many interpreters."

The Duke of Chou [declined][10] saying, "Why should I be
given a present?"

The interpreter said, "We received the order from the elders
of my state who said,[11] `For a long time in the heavens there
have been no sudden winds or quick rains, and on the sea no
waves or inundations. For three years it has been thus. It seems
to us probable that there is a sage in the Middle Kingdom. Why
not go pay court to him?' Whereupon we came."

The Duke of Chou then respectfully received[12] that which they
had brought. The Ode says,[13]

13

For the pleasure of seeing far after climbing to a height and
standing by a gulf, towers and lookouts do not provide so elevated
an outlook as hills and mountains. For the pleasure of looking
out across a plain and getting an extensive view, ponds and
[artificial] lakes do not provide so wide a vista as rivers and
[natural] lakes.

He troubles his heart and pains his mind, gives rein to his
desires and goes to the extreme in his likes, wastes property and
does violence to his feelings, sullies his reputation and shortens
his life: alas! alas! that a ruler in extremity should turn from this
way [of natural economy] and worry the people! The Ode says,[1]

14

The Confucian is pliant;[1] the meaning of the word ju is emptiness.[2]
(?) It is an immutable technique [of living]. In the thousand
undertakings and the ten thousand transformations their Way
is unexhausted—such are the Six Classics. Now as to appropriate
relations between prince and subject, the love between father and
son, the distinction between husband and wife, and precedence
between friends—these are what the Confucian takes care to
preserve; daily he "cuts and polishes"[3] without ceasing. Though
he live in a poor alley and in a wretched hut, not having enough
to fill his emptiness or to clothe himself, and though he be without
so much as an awl's point of territory, still his understanding is
sufficient to control the empire. When he is employed in a greater

capacity, he has the makings of a nobleman. If he is employed
in a lesser capacity and given office, he will be a minister to whom
may be entrusted the destiny of the state. Though he live secluded
in a mountain cave, kings and feudal lords will be unable to contest
his fame.[4] Why is this? Simply because from him is an emanation
of jên and i. Should he give a king the opportunity to hear his
words and rely on his conduct, it would be possible to see [again]
the methods of T`ang and Yü,[5] while the sound of songs of praise
would become audible. The Ode says,[6]
[It shows that] they got advice from all sources.[7]

15[1]

There is a traditional saying: That the Son of Heaven can
stay inside the curtain in his great room, seated on the mat
wearing his imperial robes[2] and slippers, without looking outside
the door, and [still] have a broad knowledge of [the affairs of] the
empire is due to his sage counselors. Thus viewing a thing alone
is not so good as viewing it in company for clearness; hearing a
thing alone is not so good as hearing it in company for understanding;
thinking about a thing alone is not so good as thinking
about it in company for effectiveness. Hence the enlightened
king brings sage ministers together and goes forward with them,
thereby everywhere attaining the right and attracting gentlemen
living in retirement. The Ode says,[3]

This is illustrated above.

16

When Heaven is established in its height, sun and moon achieve
their brilliance; when Earth is established in its mass, hills and
mounds achieve their positions;[1] when superiors are established
in the True Way, all things are properly ordered. After the decline
of the [Royal] House[2] of Chou, the Kingly Way disappeared and
did not [again] rise up. Li and i were broken off and not continued.

In Ch`in times li and i were held in disrepute, the Shih and the
Shu were discarded, and antiquity was neglected. The Way of the
saints was completely destroyed, and [people] devoted themselves
solely to vain and perverse practices. Avarice was the usual thing,
accusations and arrests[3] were common, and the empire was in
great confusion. Whereupon troops were employed and fire flared
up.[4] Living outside, exposed to the elements, the people considered
exactions, robbery and stealing from one another the ordinary
practice. Every day they were further separated in time from the
radiance of the Saintly Kings. They had never viewed the Way of
jên and i, nor received the influence of rites (li) and music. Since
they were unscrupulous and without ritual (li), dignified and
respectful conduct daily degenerated.[5] Violently they threatened
one another with force and military power. Irresponsibly they
became sycophants and did not flee disaster and suffering. This
is why they were difficult to govern.

Man has six desires. His eyes desire to see good-looking colors,
his ears desire to hear [the notes] kung and shang,[6] his nose desires
to smell fragrant odors; his mouth desires to taste fine flavors,
his four limbs desire repose and inactivity; of clothing he likes the

elegant and embroidered, the light and warm. These six are the
six desires of the people. Neglecting them results in trouble;
acting in accord with them, in harmony. Hence the Saintly King,
in instructing the people, always makes a point of following their
desires, employing ritual (li) to restrain them; he accords always
with their wishes, using i to control them. I being simple and
complete, ritual (li) being easy and regulated, and [neither]
departing far from [human] desires, the people as a result obey
orders quickly. Confucius, knowing how easy the Way is put into
action, said, "The Ode says,[7]
—these are not empty words.

17[1]

It is the nature of a cocoon to make silk thread, but if it is not
first heated in boiling water by the woman whose job it is, and
then unraveled and put into order,[2] it will not become silk thread.
It is the nature of an egg to make a chick; but without a good hen
to cover it and protect it for days on end, it will not become a
chick. Now the nature of man is good, but without the support of
an enlightened king or saintly ruler who will make him intimate
with the True Way, he will not become a superior man. The
Ode says,[3]

It says that it may be brought about only with an enlightened
king or saintly ruler.

18

One whose knowledge is like a spring and whose conduct can
be taken as representative of good manners is a teacher. One
whose knowledge can be improved[1] and whose conduct can be
considered helpful[2] is a friend. One who holds to the law, sticks
to the duties of his office, and dares not do wrong is a clerk.[3] One
who, standing before [his master], confirms his ideas (?) and
answers every call with repeated assent is a servant. Thus the
superior ruler makes the teacher his assistant; the mediocre ruler
makes the friend his assistant; the inferior ruler makes the clerk
his assistant; the ruler who is headed for destruction makes the
servant his assistant. As the saying has it, "If the pond is big,
the fish in it will be large; if the ruler is enlightened, his ministers
will be intelligent."[4] When two persons on looking at each other
find their intentions in accord, they will always follow a mean.[5] (?)
Thus persons[6] with the same sight will see eye-to-eye; those with
the same ear for sounds will listen to one another; and those with
the same intentions will follow one another's suggestions. Only
a sage can use a sage. Truly, the ministers and assistants who are
employed in office are the pivot between survival and extinction,
and the key to success and failure. Can one but take care? The
Ode says,[7]

19[1]

Of old through Yü the Hsia was ruled, and through Chieh
the Hsia was lost. Through T`ang the Yin was ruled, and through
Chou the Yin was lost. Thus there is no state always static,[2]
nor a people [always] ready to be ruled. If it gets a sage, [the state]
will be prosperous; if it gets an unworthy [ruler][3] it will be lost:
from antiquity to the present time this has always been the case.
Now a bright mirror is the means of reflecting the form, and the
past is the means of knowing the present. For to know enough
to detest that whereby ancient [dynasties] fell and not follow the
methods by which they preserved themselves,[4] is no different
from seeking to catch up with the man ahead of you by walking
backwards. The proverb says, "If you do not know whom to
make an officer, look at a task which he has completed." Another
says, "If the chariot ahead turns over and the one following
does not take warning, then it too will overturn." Truly, that
which brought about the fall of the Hsia was practiced by the Yin,
and that which brought about the fall of the Yin was practiced

by the Chou. Hence the Yin could have used the Hsia as a
mirror, and the Chou could have used the Yin as a mirror. The
Ode says,[5]

20[1]

There is a traditional saying: The prince whose pride is excessive
rarely has loyal [subjects],[2] and the man who speaks a great
deal is seldom sincere. Just as a tree that can be compassed by
the hand has no branches that would fill the embrace, neither does
a small stream[3] contain any fish that could swallow a boat. If
the roots are shallow, the branches and leaves will be scrubby;
if the roots are broken off, then branches and leaves will wither.
The Ode says,[4]

Calamity or fortune each appears naturally and of itself (?).

21[1]

If the water or pool is deep and broad, dragons and fish will
live in it. If mountain forests are flourishing, birds and beasts
will go to them.[2] If li and i are polished and made brilliant, the

superior man will embrace them. Thus when the practice of li
reaches the individual, his conduct is improved; when the practice
of li[3] reaches to a state, its government becomes brilliant. If one
is able to support himself with li, his honorable name will automatically
become prominent, and the empire will be obedient.
His commands will be put into effect, his prohibitions will be
observed, and the task of the ruler will be complete. The Ode
says,[4]
This is illustrated above.

22[1]

Confucius said, "In offering advice, the [proper] method is to
begin by putting it on a plane of solemnity, to establish it on a
note of rectitude, hold to[2] it with strength, illustrate it with
metaphors, make it clear by establishing distinctions,[3] and express
it with joy and friendliness.[4] Make it valuable and rare, make it
worthy of honor and respect. Advice of which these things are
true will always be put to use. This is what is known as being
able to esteem what one values. Now as to outlandish advice,
unpatterned behavior, and carping words, the superior man
bewares of them."

The Ode says,[5]

23

Now if the people on the one hand do not lack food, and on
the other[1] do not suffer from cold, they can be taught and
governed through li and i. The Ode says,[2]

When all ritual (li) is provided for, all wishes are realized; when
all wishes are realized, yin and yang are in harmony. When yin
and yang are in harmony, hot and cold are equalized; when hot
and cold are equalized, the three radiances[3] are clear; when the
three radiances are clear, wind and rain are seasonable; when
wind and rain are seasonable, all living things are at peace. Under
such circumstances the Way of Heaven is operative. In this way
[a ruler] may know the empire without going outside his door,
and without looking out of his window he can view the Way of
Heaven. The Ode says,
It says he nourished them even in the darkness.

24[1]

To Heaven belong the four seasons: spring, summer, autumn,
and winter,[2] with wind, rain, hoar frost, and dew; [in the action

of] all and each of these [there] is a lesson.[3] When the personal
character is pure and bright, the spirit and mind are like those
of a spiritual being. When what such a person desires is about to
come, there are sure to be premonitions of it in advance, [as when]
Heaven [is about to] send down seasonable rain, clouds come out
from hills and streams. The Ode says,[4]
Such was the virtue of [Kings] Wên and Wu.[8]

The rulers of the Three Dynasties always were preceded by
their good names.[9] The Ode says,[10]

Such was the virtue of King T`ai.[11]

25[1]

Borrowing the blue color of the indigo plant, a [dyed] thread
is bluer than indigo.[2] Borrowing the yellow color of earth, a [dyed]
thread is yellower than earth. If even the blue of indigo and the
yellow of earth can be borrowed, cannot the substance of jên
and i certainly be borrowed?

In the Eastern Sea there are fish called the tieh,[3] which go about
sharing their [single] eyes. Unless they are two together, they
cannot get anywhere. In the north there are animals called lou,
one of which eats while the other keeps watch.[4] Unless they are
two together, they cannot eat their fill. In the south there are
birds called chien, which fly by combining their [single] wings.
Unless they are two together they cannot get up [off the ground].
In the west[5] there are animals called chüeh, whose front legs are
those of a rat and whose hind legs are those of a rabbit. When it
gets sweet grass, it always takes it in its mouth and gives it to
the ch`ung-ch`ung-chü-hsü;[6] not that by instinct it loves the
ch`ung-ch`ung-chü-hsü, but that it may avail itself of its legs.[7]

Now if even birds, beasts, and fishes depend on one another,[8]
how much the more lamentable that the ruler of [a state of] ten

thousand chariots[9] should be the only one not to know enough to
avail himself of the company[10] of the empire's heroes and worthies
and associate himself with them. Truly it is said, clarity supported
by clarity will rise up to Heaven; obscurity supported by
clarity will attract the right men; but it is pure luck if two blind
men supporting each other do not injure [themselves against]
a wall or a tree, or fall into a well or a hole. The Ode says,[11]
This [speaks of][14] going in obscurity.

26

Prosperity takes it rise from non-interference, and trouble
from desiring too much.[1] If one knows enough to be content, riches
will follow; if one has the qualities appropriate to a ruler, honor
will follow. Hence one with high rank who is deficient in these
qualities would not be honored[2] though he should be Son of
Heaven, and one who covets material goods without knowing
where to stop would not be rich though he should possess the
empire. Now the produce of the land does not increase [indefinitely],
and the products of mountains and lakes are exhaustible.
Cherishing an insatiable mind[3] to seek things whose increase is
limited, and fostering desires a hundredfold to seek exhaustible

property—this is how Chieh and Chou lost their thrones. The
Ode says,[4]

27[1]

Duke Ai asked Tzŭ-hsia, "Is it necessarily true that only after
study one can keep a state at peace and protect the people?"

Tzŭ-hsia said, "There has never been such a thing as keeping
a state at peace and protecting the people without having studied."

Duke Ai said, "Did the Five Emperors then have their
teachers?"

Tzŭ-hsia said, "I have heard that Huang-ti studied under
T`ai-chên.[2] Chuan-hsü studied under Lu T`u.[3] The Emperor K`u
studied under Ch`ih Sung-tzŭ.[4] Yao studied under Wu-ch`êng
Tzŭ-fu. Shun studied under Yin Shou.[5] Yŭ studied under Hsi-wang
Kuo.[6] T`ang studied under Tai Tzŭ-hsiang.[7] King Wên
studied under Hsi-ch`ou Tzŭ-ssŭ.[8] King Wu studied under T`aikung.
The Duke of Chou studied under Kuo Shu.[9] Chung-ni
studied under Lao Tan. Had these eleven sages not met with
these teachers, it would not have been possible for their accomplishments[10]

to appear in the empire, or for their names to be
transmitted to later generations."

The Ode says,[11]

28

Now as to virtue (tê), it encompasses the magnitude[1] of
Heaven and Earth; it matches the brilliance of sun and moon.
It establishes the harmony[2] of the four seasons and overlooks[3]
the interchanges of yin and yang. It is unmoved by cold and heat;
it is unchanged by the four seasons. It is more shrinking than the
extreme of yin, yet is not damp; it is more expansive than the
extreme of yang, yet it is not dessicated. Fresh, clean, pure, and
bright in its perfection; stern, majestic, resolute,[4] and prompt
in its spirituality; most refined and subtle essence[5] between
Heaven and Earth—[such] is virtue. Who but the sage can
partake of it? The Ode says,[6]

29

As in a year of drought, when the grass does not attain to
luxuriance,[1] and then Heaven, bringing forth an abundance of
clouds, sends down torrents of rain,[2] so that of living things none
but rise up, [even so] among the people there are none in whose

hearts jên and i are not rooted.[3] When kingly government through
uncertainty and oppression cannot make itself seen,[4] when from
worry and anxiety it is unable to appear, then the sage ruler
in. . . . ,[5] and wearing[6] slippers, is obeyed by the empire without
looking outside his door. He sings and the empire accompanies
him. How is this achieved? There are those who respond to him.
The Ode says,[7]

30[1]

What is the Way? It is that whereon the prince travels.[2] What
is the prince? He is one who collects;[3] he is called a prince who
assembles all living things[4] and ejects what is injurious to them.
What is the king? It means a going to.[5] He to whom the empire
goes is called king. He is one who is good at giving life to and
caring for the people,[6] and so the people esteem him; he is one
who is good at distinguishing and governing the people, and so
the people are content with him; he is one who is good at displaying
and employing people,[7] and so the people love him. He
is good at embellishing people, and so the people rejoice in him.
If in these four essentials[8] he is complete, the empire will go to

him. If of these four essentials he lacks one, the empire will leave
him. He to whom they go is called king, and he whom they leave
is called lost.[8a] Truly it is said that if the Way is preserved the
state will be preserved, and if the Way is lost the state will be
lost.

Now he limits [the numbers of] craftsmen and merchants, and
makes farmers many; he exercises vigilance toward bandits and
expels the lewd and the depraved; this is how he gives life to and
cares for them (= the people). The Son of Heaven has the san
kung,[9] and [each] of the feudal lords has one minister. The Great
Officers attend to their duties; the officers look after their offices.
None but are controlled and in order. This is how he distinguishes
and governs them. From determining virtue he fixes precedence,
from measuring ability he bestows office. Sages are made san
kung; those next [to the sages][10] are made feudal lords, and those
next to them are made Great Officers: [this is how he displays
and employs them. He refines caps and gowns. Decoration and
ornamentation, engraving and carving,—each has its status:][11]
this is how he embellishes them. Hence from Son of Heaven to
commoner there is none who does not fulfill[12] his ability and
achieve his ambition, [or who is not] content with his task: in
this all are alike. Now by multiplying colors, patterns are perfected,
and by refining flavors, rare things are created. It is
through such [methods] that the saint distinguishes between the
sage and the fool[13] and shows up the worthwhile and the cheap.

Truly when the Way is attained, grace flows to the people and
prosperity comes back to the nobles. When grace flows to the
people, inferiors are at peace and in harmony. When prosperity
comes back to the nobles, superiors are respected and honored.

Since the people all cherish feelings of peace and harmony, they
support their superiors with pleasure. This is what is called
"inferiors in order and superiors informed." When inferiors are
in order and superiors informed, because of this sounds of praise
arise. The Ode says,[14]

31

The saintly man nourishes a unique nature and governs his
six ch`i;[1] he stands by a unique fate and is temperate in what he
eats.[2] He governs the empire in a grand manner, not neglecting
small matters.[3] Preserving the essential spirit so as to fill up a
due mean[4] is called determination.[5] The Ode says,[6]

It speaks of attaining to a due mean.

32

Gentlemen of the court having gone [there] do not come out
because of the remuneration. Gentlemen in retirement having
gone away do not come back[1] because of their reputation. To

enter [the court] and still be able to come out; to go away [into
retirement] and still be able to return, constant through change—
such is the behavior of the saint. The Ode says,[2]
It speaks of attaining to a due mean.

33[1]

Confucius was sitting by [one of the] Chi-sun [family]. The
Chi-sun's minister T`ung[2] said, "If the prince should send someone
to borrow a horse, should it be given him?"

Confucius said, "I have heard that when a prince takes [a
thing] from his subject, it is termed `taking'; one does not speak
of `borrowing.' "

The Chi-sun understood and said to the minister T`ung, "From
now on when your prince takes a thing, call it taking. Do not
speak of borrowing."

Confucius rectified[3] the expression "borrowing a horse," and
as a result the proper relation between prince and subject was
established.

The Lun yü says,[4] "What is necessary is to rectify names."
The Ode says,[5]