 | |  |
On May 22, 1788, the Independent Chronicle (Boston) carried the following "Proposals for printing by Subscription, A System Of French and American Trade, under the title of 'On France and the United States.'—By Stephen Claviere, and J. P. Brissot De Warville. Translated from French by Joseph De Nancrede." A book thus entitled and in the form described in those Proposals was never published. Yet because of the relationship between translator and author and the effect of that relationship upon the Franco-American press in this country, the project merits recording. Although its immediate purpose failed, its ultimate purpose— to elucidate French thought for American readers—succeeded. Moreover, since an attempt was made to involve Isaiah Thomas in publication of the work, the scheme deserves a place in American printing history.
The announced translator of this "System of French and American Trade," Joseph de Nancrede, had recently been appointed French instructor at Harvard College. Born in France in 1761, he had also recently changed his name, Paul Joseph Guérard, to Joseph Nancrede or de Nancrede. As Private Guérard he had served in the Army of Rochambeau and apparently developed an abiding taste for the United States of America.
It was with such a purpose in mind that Nancrede translated and attempted to have published a "System of French and American Trade" by Etienne Clavière and Clavière's more distinguished collaborator, Brissot de Warville. The work reflected its author. Jacques Pierre Brissot de Warville, who was to become the leader of the Girondist Party during the French Revolution, was a strong advocate of Franco-American accord and to this end he founded the Société des Amis des Noirs as well as the Société Gallo-Américaine. In 1787, partially to this same end of Franco-American friendship, he published the original French version of De la France et des Etats-Unis; ou l'Importance de la Révolution de l'Amérique pour le Bonheur de la France. Written in collaboration with the refugee Swiss banker Etienne Clavière, the book dilated upon the commercial advantages opened to France by the American Revolution. Anti-mercantilist and pro-Adam Smith in its economic philosophy, it stressed the commercial interdependence of a France that was on the verge of revolution and an America that was emerging from one. In addition to promoting strong economic relations between the two countries, De le France et des Etats-Unis encouraged French emulation of American liberty and promised prosperity.[2]
This was the author whom young Joseph Nancrede followed in discipleship and this was the book the recently appointed French instructor at Harvard promptly translated into English as On France and the United States. Although his translation never appeared between boards, extracts from it were printed in the newspapers—those "channels through which information is circulated in America."[3] In its April 2, 1788, issue the Massachusetts Centinel had announced: "The observations contained in the following extract from a work on the French and American Trade, written by Mr. Warville Claviere [sic], appear highly important to our country, at the present day—we have, therefore, obtained them for the gratification of our readers, from a gentleman who is now translating into English that interesting and useful work." The section "On Means of Exchange and Balance" followed. At least one further extract appeared in a subsequent issue of the
In July the Massachusetts Centinel announced the arrival of the author of the work, Monsieur J. P. Brissot de Warville, who had come passenger aboard the Cato: "Mr. De Warville . . . is the author of the celebrated treatise on French and American trade—extracts from which we have frequently published in our paper [sic].—If the soundest principles of politicks, and the interests of nations— . . . a love of liberty, and a brilliant genius—added to unremitting endeavours, in defending and promoting their interests, in his spirited writings, can endear him to the citizens of the United States, he is already naturalized in the hearts of every American."[5]
Brissot promptly paid appropriate thanks to the editor of the Centinel for "the praises you have so liberally bestowed on my writings. . . . My endeavours for defending the cause of universal liberty, and for promoting the interests of free Americans, will exceed my most sanguine hopes if they be any recommendation to me from them, and secure me their esteem."[6] While Brissot was quick to thank his collaborator Clavière for his part in the undertaking, he made no mention of Nancrede. Moreover, in referring to the publication the title he used was not Nancrede's literal translation, On France and the United States, but Considerations on the Relations between the United States and France.
By the time of Brissot's arrival aboard the Cato, the translator Joseph Nancrede had collected some 150 advance subscriptions for the book and had interested not only the French-speaking population of Boston in the enterprise but several local dignitaries, including Governor Hancock and his immediate predecessor James Bowdoin. Nonetheless, 150 subscriptions were inadequate to meet the projected expenses of publishing and Nancrede in order to lower costs contemplated making several deletions in the text. To this the author objected; moreover, Brissot threatened to make the publication still more costly by furnishing the translator with additional sections to be incorporated in the work.
It may have been at this stage of the project or somewhat later that Brissot de Warville paid a visit to Worcester, subsequently recording his reaction to the town and its distinguished citizen Isaiah Thomas: "This town is elegant and well-peopled; the printer, Isaiah Thomas, has rendered it famous throughout the Continent of America. He has printed a large part of the works which appear; and it is acknowledged that his editions
On August 5, 1788, Joseph Nancrede, disappointed in his plans for publishing Brissot's work by subscription, but still enthusiastic about the merits and importance of the book, enlisted the aid of the Didot of America. His letter to Isaiah Thomas reflects both his opinion of the text and his technique of persuasion:
Isaiah Thomas's most humble and most obedient De Nancrede may have been unaware at this time of a stumbling block that would stand in the way of American publication of his translation. Brissot de Warville was surely aware of it and there seems little doubt that Isaiah Thomas was made aware of it, for he presumably declined printing On France and the United States.
The stumbling block took the shape of a book with the lengthy title: Considerations on The Relative Situation of France, and the United States of America: Shewing The Importance of the American Revolution to the Welfare of France: Giving also An Account of their Productions, and the reciprocal Advantages which may be drawn from their Commercial Connexions: and finally, Pointing Out The Actual Situation of the United States. Like Nancrede's On France and the United States, the volume had been "Translated from the French of Etienne Claviere, and J. P. Brissot de Warville." Unlike Nancrede's On France and the United States, it had already been published in book form. It bore the London imprint: "Printed at the Logographic Press, and sold by Robson and Clarke, New Bond Street; T. Longman, Pater-noster-row; and W. Richardson, Royal-Exchange. 1788."
The Logographic Office had been opened in Blackfriars, London, in 1784 by John Walter, who was to found The Times, and his partner Henry Johnson who had patented a "new method of printing by means of 'logotypes' or founts composed of complete words instead of separate letters." Some forty books were printed by that process including an English translation of Necker's Finances of France and an English translation of Brissot de Warville's treatise on trade.[10]
Brissot, who had visited London, may have arranged for that translation himself. His use of the title Considerations on the Relations between the United States and France in his thank-you note to the editor of the Massachusetts Centinel certainly indicates a knowledge of the London publication.[11] At the same time, he must have encouraged Nancrede to translate what he hoped would become the first American edition of his work on Franco-American trade. The point of view of the author and of the translator Nancrede—whenever the latter became aware of the earlier translation— would naturally differ from the point of view of Isaiah Thomas as printer-publisher. Brissot and Nancrede, believing in the wide appeal of the work, would see in British and American publications of the same year a means
A tantalizing phrase in the extract of a letter written by Brissot just a few days after Nancrede's letter to Isaiah Thomas arouses speculation. Addressing his collaborator Clavière on August 9 and 10, 1788, Brissot mentions the charms of Boston and Cambridge and then writes: "Détails sur la traduction de notre ouvrage." The "Détails" unfortunately are not specified in the extract of the letter extant in the Bibliothèque Nationale.[12] Perhaps they would have identified the anonymous London translator, dilated upon Nancrede's predicament, and explained the reaction of authors, translators and publishers.
At all events, instead of enjoying American publication of the work, Brissot de Warville in September 1788 presented (through the kindness of Nancrede's supporter James Bowdoin) a copy of his economic study on Franco-American relations, along with "a number of valuable books in the French Language,"[13] to the library of Harvard University. There is little doubt that Harvard's disappointed French instructor, using those books in his classes, appreciated the irony that, after all his effort, his own translation of De la France et des Etats-Unis would never achieve publication in book form.
Despite his disappointment, Nancrede remained a "brissotin" and Brissot's influence persisted long after his departure from this country. The Société Gallo-Américaine, founded by Brissot in Paris in 1787, had an unofficial Boston branch of which Nancrede was a member and a motto which Nancrede was shortly to exploit. The motto, "L'Utilité des Deux Mondes," was to be emblazoned upon one of the earliest French newspapers in the United States where Brissot's concepts of trade and Franco-American relations were to find a sounding board.
The Courier de Boston—a title modeled perhaps on Brissot's Courier de Londres—was announced in the Massachusetts Centinel of February 11, 1789, as the direct outcome of the Gallo-American Society, "the objects of which are to promote the advantages of the two countries."[14] Nancrede
The influence of Brissot de Warville and the tenets of his De la France et des Etats-Unis, implicit in this introductory notice, continued to be felt in the news-sheet itself, which was issued weekly between April 13 and October 15, 1789. The eight-page paper, printed by Samuel Hall, carried news from France including Brissot's Discourse of April 21, 1789, the opening of the States-General, and the fall of the Bastille; American news including the election of Washington and Adams and the sessions and debates of Congress. By and large it emphasized questions of economics and aimed at a readership of merchants, providing not only a Price Current but essays on commerce, free trade and speculation, along with advice to emigrants to America possibly written by Brissot himself.[15]
There was little doubt that Nancrede was spreading brissotin influence in America and although his Courier de Boston lasted only six months, the editor continued his efforts to promote Franco-American relations. In 1790 Brissot wrote to Nancrede from Paris informing him that he was sending him for distribution issues of his own newspaper, the Patriote François, as well as a package of brochures.[16] "You can profit from this journal," he wrote subsequently, "to instruct the Americans in our revolution."[17]
Through every available means Nancrede did attempt to clarify for American readers the purposes of the French Revolution and the philosophy of Brissot de Warville and through that clarification to promote friendship and trade between the two countries. In 1791 he translated into English the Discourse upon the Question, Whether the King shall be tried?, which Brissot de Warville had delivered before the Society of the Friends of the Constitution in Paris on July 10 of that year. This time his translation was published by Belknap and Young of Boston and the name of "P. J. G. de Nancrede, Preceptor of the French Language, in the University of Cambridge" appeared as translator on the title-page of what was called "The First American Edition."
In a two-page Advertisement Nancrede explained his purposes in translating a Discourse that would never cease to remind the world that "The American Revolution brought forth the French Revolution."[18] Although
Brissot's own reception of the translation was favorable; he wrote to Nancrede from Paris in 1792: "I owe you thanks for the pains you have taken with this translation, for the interest you take in the author and his works."[19] That interest continued. The new French ambassador to the United States—Citizen Genêt—was sent at Brissot's instigation, and through him Brissot dispatched his letter to Nancrede "so that the correspondence between the two nations will be established more regularly."[20] Nancrede served Genêt in the capacity of unofficial reporter of Boston events and consular differences, and when opportunity for a prize agency arose, Brissot recommended his disciple for the post.[21]
By 1792 Harvard's French instructor, recognizing the dire need for French texts in his classes, compiled an anthology also published by Belknap and Young, L'Abeille Françoise, ou Nouveau Recueil, De Morceaux Brillans, Des Auteurs François Les Plus Celebres. Ouvrage Utile à ceux qui
A poignant phrase in a letter from Nancrede to Citizen Genêt foreshadowed the fate of the French Girondist who had so deeply influenced Nancrede. "Si vous saviez quelque chose sur le sort de Brissot, et que vous voulussiez m'en faire part, je vous en aurois beaucoup d'obligation." That letter was written on September 20, 1793.[22] On October 30, the former leader of the Girondist Party was condemned to death and the next day, at the age of 39, he was guillotined. Not quite 50 years later, when Nancrede died, among his papers would be found a copy of Brissot de Warville's philosophic reflections on suffering and imprisonment.[23]
Brissot had been killed—but not his good book. De la France et des Etats-Unis had been published in English translation in London in 1788; during the same year portions of Nancrede's English translation had appeared in Boston's newspaper press. Six years later a third English translation was published in London and republished in New York in 1795. Despite a strain in French-American relations, there was still sufficient interest in trade between the two countries to spur a demand for Brissot's book. This time the translator was distinguished as the author of The Vision of Columbus, Advice to the Privileged Orders and The Conspiracy of Kings. He was none other than Joel Barlow, the Hartford wit who resided abroad, the poet-statesman and liberal thinker who, like the lesser known Joseph Nancrede, had felt the influence of Brissot de Warville.
Joel Barlow entitled his translation of De la France et des Etats-Unis: The Commerce of America with Europe; particularly with France and
There is little or no likelihood that Barlow knew of Nancrede's earlier attempt to publish a translation of De la France et des Etats-Unis. Yet the interests of the two translators—and their paths—were to cross again at another critical period of American history. Joel Barlow was to be appointed by Madison minister to France in 1811, principally to intercede with Napoleon Bonaparte for improved commercial relations with the United States. At that time Joseph Nancrede would serve as one of the unofficial "confidential advisers of our minister."[25] Joel Barlow, the American, had been made an honorary citizen of France during the Revolution. In 1799 Joseph Nancrede, the Frenchman, became a naturalized American citizen.[26] Yet throughout their lives both men were citizens of two worlds.
By the time Barlow's translation of Brissot had been published in New York in 1795, Joseph Nancrede, with a partner, Thomas Hall, had set up as bookseller-publisher on Boston's State Street. In this phase of his life he would be motivated by the same purpose that had governed his teaching and his translations—to publicize the utility of two worlds by introducing to American readers the best that had been thought and said in France. It was only natural therefore that, despite the failure of his own translation of Brissot, Nancrede should advertise Barlow's published translation.
In 1796, on his own as bookseller-publisher, Marlborough Street, Boston, Joseph Nancrede issued his first Catalogue of Books in the Various Branches of Literature; lately imported from London, Dublin, Paris, and other Capitals of Europe. Among the books listed are three works by Brissot de Warville
Nancrede was naturally not the only bookseller who advertised the Barlow translation of Brissot. In October 1796 the firm of Isaiah Thomas issued a Catalogue of Books to be Sold by Thomas, Son & Thomas, at their Bookstore, in Worcester, Massachusetts. Along with works by Voltaire and Necker the list carried the title, "Brissott on Commerce."[28] To Joseph Nancrede, who eight years before had unsuccessfully attempted to enlist Isaiah Thomas's help in publishing his own translation of Brissot de Warville, this must surely have seemed the ultimate irony. Yet a citizen of two worlds would welcome any effort to encourage accord between those worlds —no matter who had translated Brissot de Warville.
| | |