University of Virginia Library

CHAPTER VI.

On the Cunning and Artful (Ta-ning).

The following question may be raised:—The virtuous obtain
honourable appointments and high wages, in case they behave
properly, why then must people acquire wealth and honour by
cunning?

The reason is this. If the cunning, though well aware that
proper conduct leads to wealth and honour, nevertheless seek a
position and money by deceit, it is because they cannot withstand
their inclinations. People know that vigorously tilling the ground,
they can expect a harvest, and that a brisk trade will provide
them with valuable goods. If they must steal them all the same,
they are unable to overcome their natural propensities. Those who
always do their duty, are held in esteem by every one, albeit yet
the unrighteous are many, and the friends of justice in the minority;
the hearts of the former are concupiscent, and their will and
intellect confused and weak. The cunning have the same qualities
as the virtuous,[196] but succumb to their passions. The robbers are
no less intelligent than farmers and merchants, but become guilty
by their cupidity.

Question:—The cunning and the virtuous having the same
qualities, qualities and conduct ought to agree. Why must the
cunning alone succumb to their passions?

Reply:—Wealth and honour is what every one desires. Even
he who by his conduct proves himself to be a perfect gentleman,
is subject to the feelings of hunger and thirst. But a superior
man combats his feelings by propriety, and dispels his desires by
righteousness. Thus walking the right path, he eschews calamities.
A vile man, on the other hand, yields to his greed and avarice,
transgressing the rules of propriety and failing against the laws
of righteousness. That leads to waywardness and cunning, by

which he becomes liable to punishment. The virtuous are superior
men, the cunning are vile. In their doings and dealings the
superior men and the vile widely differ, and their likes and dislikes
are dissimilar.

Question:—Have the cunning and the slanderers the same
principles, or is there any difference?

Reply:—The cunning and the slanderers are both vile, their
principles are the same, but their qualities, different. Envy is the
mainspring of their characters, which, however, manifest and reveal
themselves in a different way. Slanderers hurt others by their
tongues, whereas the cunning endanger them by their actions. The
former take the direct road, the latter prefer the crooked one, and
disguise their plans. The slanderers do not intrigue, the cunning
have all kinds of devices. Therefore the sovereign can avoid the
company of slanderers and seek that of the kind-hearted, but he
is unable to distinguish the cunning from the virtuous.

Exception:—Since a sovereign can always keep aloof from
slanderers and consort with the kind-hearted, but is incapable of
drawing a distinction between the virtuous and the cunning, is
it impossible to know the mind of the latter?

Reply:—The cunning can be known, but a sovereign is not
qualified to acquire this knowledge. An ordinary sovereign does
not know the virtuous, and for that very reason cannot know the
cunning either. Only wise and sage men examine their actions
by the Nine Virtues and verify their words by the outcome of
their deeds. If those actions do not harmonise with the Nine
Virtues,[197] and if their words are not proved true by their doings,
the persons in question are not virtuous, but cunning. By knowing
the cunning one knows the virtuous, and by knowing the virtuous
one knows the cunning. The knowledge of the cunning at the
same time displays the nature of the virtuous and wise, and a
conception of the virtuous is a key to understanding the character
of the cunning and artful. The virtuous and the cunning proceed

in a different way, but the same investigation shows us what they
are; their aspirations are not the same, but one look reveals their
real nature.

Question:—The system of the Nine Virtues has long been
established, and there is no student but on seeing measures, knows
their capacity, or on beholding scales, knows their weight. How
is it that a ruler and lord of the land is ever surrounded by false
and cunning ministers and always humbugged and hoodwinked?[198]

(Reply):—One must not complain that the measures are wrong,
but that there is no grain to be measured, nor that there are no
scales, but that there is nothing to be weighed. Those on the throne
do not ignore that by means of the Nine Virtues they can investigate
actions, and that from the results of his actions the sentiments of
the agent may be inferred. If nevertheless they are blindfolded and
see nothing, it is evident that they did not take the trouble to
look. It is not always possible to act, but any action may be
scrutinised, and men cannot always go into a question, but their
sentiments may always be learned.

Question:—When the actions do not agree with the Nine
Virtues, an investigation into the achievements does not disclose
any deserts. Then such persons though promoted, do not turn out
virtuous, and not being virtuous, they are cunning. Now, can men
of trivial talents and superficial knowledge who cannot come up
to the virtuous, since they have not their merits, nor act like
them, be called cunning?

Reply:—The talents not being equally matched, there can be
no rivalry of actions, nor a competition of merits. If people cannot
cope together in knowledge, their talents may be in a proportion
of ten to a hundred,[199] but their likes and dislikes ought to be the
same. However the virtuous and the cunning do not act in the
same way. Both declare good to be good, and bad, bad,[200] and both
enjoy real fame, but in their works the former build up, the latter
destroy. According to their distinction of right and wrong, their

doings must likewise be true or false. Now they agree in their
words, but their proceedings are different, both have an excellent
name, but the doings of the cunning are depraved.

Question:[201] —If those whose dealings are in accordance with the
Nine Virtues are virtuous, then those whose actions are not, are
cunning. Must then all the ordinary people be held to be cunning
owing to their actions?

Reply:—All who are not right are wicked. Among the wicked
those who kick against the pricks, are called unprincipled, and those
who are artful, are considered cunning. In the penal laws of the
holy emperors the cunning are ranked among the wicked, and in
their rewards and exhortations the virtuous are among the good.
The virtuous of perfect purity and the best among the good, are
the sages among the virtuous. On the other hand, the great
impostors among the wicked,[202] are the worst of the bad. Whence
they say that one must look for the virtuous among the good, and
search for the cunning among the wicked. When goodness and
badness are well determined, the virtuous and the cunning become
manifest.

Question:—The intelligent may be beclouded, and in arguing
one may be mistaken. Now, if those who are right, are looked
upon as virtuous, and those who are wrong, as cunning, this would
be a misconception of the real nature of virtue, I should say.

Reply:—That the intellect may be beclouded and arguments
erroneous, is much to be regretted. Therefore we have the saying:—
[In punishing premeditated crimes none must be considered too
small,[203] and in condoning carelessness none should be deemed too
great.[204] ] A wise sovereign scrutinises the heart, and examines the
mind, and then he punishes malice, and pardons mistakes. In case

of premeditated attacks the penalty is increased, for mistakes and
errors it is diminished.[205] Every judge can make this distinction, and
he will harbour no doubt, when he falls in with a virtuous man.

Question:—May those be called cunning whose words and deeds
are not attended with any success?

(Reply):—When Su Ch`in[206] brought about a confederation of Six
States,[207] mighty Ch`in did not venture to review its troops outside
the gates, and when Chang Yi[208] sowed distrust, the Six States did
not risk a joint attack within the gates. The Six States being allied,
Ch`in was afraid, and the Six States were powerful; the Three
Ch`in[209] having spread discord, Ch`in became powerful and the empire
weak. The merits of these men were conspicuous, and their success
was obvious. They have been recorded on bamboo and silks. Even
worthies could not have outvied them. The Grand Annalist speaking
of all the worthies, devotes special chapters to Su Ch`in[210] and Chang
Yi,[211] nor is there any allusion to their having been envious or
depraved. Their deserts were the same, and their fame not inferior
to that of worthies. Merits which fall short of those of the worthies
are like fame which is not real.

Chang Yi and Su Ch`in were men who could arrange difficulties.
Living in a time of great disorder and confusion,[212] they formed far
reaching plans. At that time Chi[213] and Hsieh[214] could not have vied
with them in scheming, and Yü and Kao Yao would not have been

as successful. When the Yin and the Yang are in harmony, wind
and rain set in at the proper time, the Five Grains grow in
abundance, and robbers and thieves desist from their iniquitous
doings; this is the merit of some persons exhibiting disinterestedness
and self-denial, and of families displaying morality and virtue.
Appointments, salary, honour, and glory are the results of plans
and schemes,[215] and not the upshot of morality and virtue. The
Grand Annalist recording merits, the Kao-lai-sse-chi-lu was written.
Illustrious deeds have been carefully gone through, and all the
most excellent, put on record. Chang Yi and Su Ch`in's exploits
being so famous have also been included in this narrative. From
this it follows that the cunning may also distinguish themselves by
their gift of speech,[216] and that those who have no success cannot
be cunning.

Exception:—Those among the wicked who win merit are called
cunning. In order to acquire merit they must be possessed of high
talents and a keen intellect. Their thoughts must be far-reaching
and pay regard to justice and benevolence, that they may be
confounded with the great worthies. Whence it is said in the
chapter on recognising the cunning:[217] —When the ruler of men has
a taste for disputations, the words of the cunning are sharp, and
when he delights in literature, their speech is refined. Sympathising
with his feelings and falling in with his views, they ingratiate
themselves with the ruler, who does not perceive the falsity of
their words. How could he learn their duplicity and detect their
deceitfulness?

Reply:—This remark only refers to an ordinary sovereign,
of poor gifts and a limited intelligence, who is easily overreached,
and then does not see anything, and takes a knave for a virtuous man.
When a prince is a good observer, discrimination is as easy for him
as beholding dried meat on a dish, pointing out the lines on the palm,
counting the figures on a chessboard, and unharnassing a horse in

the shafts. Fish and turtles abscond in the depths, but fishermen
know their resorts; birds and beasts hide in the mountains, but
hunters perceive their tracks. The conduct of the cunning is different
from that of most other people, and only ordinary sovereigns
and men of mediocre abilities cannot see the difference.

Exception:—The sovereign being fond of discussions, the cunning
will use sharp words, and, when he is partial to literature, the
style of the cunning is refined. Their words and deeds thus being
modelled upon those of the prince, how can they be discovered?

Reply:—Wên Wang says of the method how officials are to
be treated:—A consideration of their former actions makes us
understand their present words, and hearing their present words
we may form a judgment of their former actions. Beholding the
outward appearance we learn to know what is hidden, and from
the inside we infer the outside. Thus the hypocrites posing as law-abiding
people may be known, and heartless deceivers be distinguished.
Conversely, sterling characters and truly good people
are found out, and the faithful who observe the laws, appear.
When, by nature, the cunning do not like discussions, but the
sovereign has a fancy for them, they will imitate their lord with a
view to agree with him, and when originally their mind has no
literary turn, upon learning that their sovereign is addicted to
literature, they will endeavour to equal him. His Majesty being
extravagant, the cunning wear costly dresses, and in case His Majesty
is thrifty, they avoid all pomp. Their present actions disagree
with the former, and their behaviour at court is other than at
home. Comparing their conduct in their native village with their
manners in the palace, and contrasting the way in which they treat
their own people with the style in which they serve their prince,
we become aware that there is a discrepancy between the outside
and the inside, and that the name and the thing do not tally. At
certain moments this becomes visible, when their falsehood leaks out.

Question:—Human actions are not constant and unchangeable.
Special circumstances often determine the issue. The faithful become
traitors, and the straight turn crooked, changes brought about by
special circumstances. The actions differ at different times, each
event is attended with its special effect, sometimes people say one
thing, sometimes another. The books of the Literati give many
instances, and such changes under special circumstances are not

unusual. Now, must we not fall into error, if we take normal
conditions as a basis?

Reply:—The virtuous may be favoured by circumstances, and
so may the cunning. When the virtuous are thus favoured, they
act accordingly, whereas, when the cunning are, they lose all restraint
and do evil. The virtuous avail themselves of such an opportunity
for a noble aim and for their country, while the cunning use it
for their personal profit and that of their family. Such an opportunity
helps us to discriminate between the virtuous and the cunning.
Observing how they react on such an incentive, we learn whom
we may call depraved and whom virtuous.

Question:—Does it happen that the cunning like to defame
others?

Reply:—The cunning do not defame others, those who do,
are slanderers. For the cunning have no occasion to slander, because
they merely seek profit. If some one is useful to them, why
should they slander him, and if he is not, slandering would be of
no avail. By their scheming they seek advantage, and by their
plots to make profit, and this profit they acquire in a convenient manner.

In case they grudge others a share of it, they intrigue against
them. When they intrigue against somebody, they do not defame
him, and injuring some one, they do not treat him badly. On the
contrary, they praise a man, while laying their traps for him, so
that he does not become aware of them, and cajole him whom they
are going to strike, so that he has no suspicions. In this manner
the cunning plot, without incurring any hatred, and they injure,
nay ruin a man, without fearing his vengeance. Hiding their
feelings and concealing their intentions, they even give themselves
the air of exerting themselves for others. If they slandered others,
these would again slander them. Nobody would have any sympathy
for them, and the scholars would not consort with them.
How could they fill their place in the world then, and win the
good graces of their lord?

Question:—If the cunning do not slander others in society, do
they slander them to the governors?

Reply:—The cunning deceive the governors with men, but they
do not slander others in their presence.[218]

Question:—Then, how do the cunning proceed?

Reply:—When the cunning calumniate others, they praise them,
and, when they plot against them, they lull them into security.
Wherein consists their slandering and plotting?

E. g. let a man have great accomplishments and a wonderful
knowledge, that his fame spreads far and wide. A governor afraid,
lest the sovereign summon the man to hear his advice, and put
more reliance in him than in himself, seeks a pretence to pass
him over in silence. But those who constantly extol and belaud
the man and introduce him to his notice, are many. The governor
mentions that he desires to employ him and asks sombody's opinion
about him. This one does not reply that X is a worthy and deserving
to be called to office, for X would not like to be retained in a
district, he formerly heard him say so. He declared that he hoped
to go to a prefecture, and being in a circuit, he hoped to be transferred
to a department. If his aims be lofty, he does not act like
other people, and if his hopes be far-reaching, he does not care for
what is near.[219] Being given a small office, his ambition is not
satisfied, or he lies down sick, and a poor appointment would injure
his virtue or hurt his dignity. Therefore the sovereign will prefer
to choose ordinary officials, that he may not lose his name or
derogate to his reputation, for, provided that he can bear the
thought of deferring to the worthy, he may use him, but if he
considers to be unable to do so, it is not advisable to employ him.
In case he makes use of him, and both sides are not equally benefitted,
or that he dismisses him, and both do not suffer, he fears his resentment.
Consequently he trusts in the suggestions of his cunning
adviser and dispenses with the services of the worthy.

Question:—Can the cunning, in order to acquire great talents
and extensive knowledge, study the ancients alone, or must they
learn from a teacher?

Reply:—Every one possesses himself the knowledge to deceive
others, but approaching a ruler he must have special qualities to
impress him, just as a person in an exalted position overawes his
subjects by his boldness. When it comes to fighting he must be
conversant with the military art. Those special abilities are uniting
and disuniting, and Kuei Ku Tse may be the teacher.

There is a tradition that Su Ch`in and Chang Yi both studied
uniting and disuniting.[220] The teacher Kuei Ku Tse[221] dug a cavern
into the earth and said, "He that shall speak down to me, so that
I come out crying, will be able to divide the territories of rulers."
Su Ch`in spoke down to him, and Kuei Ku Tse was so moved, that
his tears fell and moistened his coat. Chang Yi did not equal
Su Ch`in, who was chief minister of Chao and of the Six States at
the same time. Chang Yi, poor and wretched, fell back upon Su
Ch`in, who made him sit down at the lower end of the hall, and
gave him the food of the servants and handmaids. Several times
calling out for him, he roused his anger with the object of inducing
him to become a minister of Ch`in. In high dudgeon Chang Yi
betook himself westward to Ch`in. Su Ch`in sent some of his men
to escort him with rich presents. Subsequently it dawned upon
Chang Yi, and he exclaimed, "This was planned by him, but I did
not understand it. In these things I cannot compete with him."[222]

Such schemes proceeded from Su Ch`in's profound knowledge.
Watching his opportunity, he did his hit at the right moment,
hence the high honour in which he was held and his great renown,
for he was considered the first hero of his time. In deep laid plans
and brilliant devices the profound and the superficial cannot be
equally successful, and the clear-headed cannot possess the same
knowledge as the blunt-witted.

Question:—Is it possible that the cunning care for their good
names and accomplish great things?

Reply:—The cunning live on profit and exclusively set store
on power. They do not care for their good names nor accomplish
great things. By affecting power and sticking to what is vulgar
they win a great notoriety of themselves. They are admired by
the base, but not esteemed by superior men, for profit and justice
are antagonistic, and straightforwardness and crookedness are opposites.
It is justice that moves the superior man, and profit the
base one. The cunning strive for great profits and notoriety. The
superior man not staying in low spheres exposes himself to dangers,[223]
and the cunning of the whole world meet with so many calamities,

that they cannot take care of their persons and still less of their
good names.

Many records of former ages give examples of men who
abandoned their families to take care of their own persons. Renouncing
all gain, they only thought of their names. On bamboo
and silks it has been written how Po Ch`êng Tse Kao[224] left his country
and tilled the ground, and how Wu Ling Tse[225] gave up his position
to water a garden. In recent times, Wang Chung Tse[226] of Lan-ling[227]
and Hsi-Lu Chün Yang[228] in Tung-tu,[229] have resigned their dignities,
and after a prolonged sickness did not respond to the call of
their sovereign. They may be said to have been mindful of
their repute.

Those who do not proceed on the path of righteousness,
cannot advance on this road, and those who are never checked in
their progress by the rules of justice, cannot win a reputation by
their justice. The cunning, hankering after profit, make light of
misfortunes, but think much of their own persons. They suddenly
perish and are disgraced; how should they care for their name.

Devoid of justice and destitute of virtue, subsequently, their proceedings
must entail dishonour, and there can be no question of great
accomplishments.

Question:—Is it easier to recognise great impostors or small impostors?

Reply:—It is easier to recognise great impostors, and more difficult
to recognise the minor ones, for the great impostors have conspicuous
abilities, and their whereabouts are easily traced. The small impostors
are less shrewd, and their doings harder to detect, which
will become clearer from the following consideration:—

After a robbery it is difficult to detect small robbers,
whereas the big ones are easily found. When they have attacked
a city, besieged a town, robbed and pillaged, the thing transpires
as soon as it has been done, and all the wayfarers know the robbers.
But when they pierce a wall and, stealthily sneaking into a compound,
steal, nobody knows them.

Question:—Great impostors create disorder by their extreme
wickedness. Now, if great robbers are easily known by people in
general, wherefore does the ruler find it such an arduous task?

Reply:—The Shuking avers that it requires intelligence to know
men, and that only for an emperor it is hard work.[230] Shun was a
great sage, and Huan Tou[231] a great impostor. For the great sage
it was difficult to know the great deceiver, for how could it be
easy, since the great deceiver did not give the great sage any
annoyance. Therefore a distinction is made between the knowledge
of the people and of their lord. The sovereign finds it difficult to
know great impostors, but easy to know small ones, whereas the
people easily know great impostors, but have difficulties to find
out small ones. Provided that the impostors be very clever and
fine speakers, then they make such a use of their talents, that the
prince with all his power cannot well call them to account for
mere thoughts, and with all his intelligence he does not perceive
anything. The talents of small impostors are of a lower order.
When, amongst their countrymen, at times they are thrown of
their guard, their real character leaks out. Then the sovereign is
startled, when he gets wind of it. Thus great deceivers cause
much more trouble than small ones.

When the roof of a house leaks, those who perceive it, are
below. In case it leaks much, those below notice it quite clearly;
if the leak is small, those below see it but indistinctly.

[Some one said, "Yung is benevolent, but not cunning."
Confucius said," Why should he use cunning. They who encounter
men with smartness of speech for the most part procure themselves
hatred.][232] By their ill-advised schemes they interfere with agriculture
and commerce, they annoy the citizens to benefit the
sovereign and irritate the people to please their lord. The advice
of loyal officers is detrimental to the ruler, but advantageous to
his subjects, the suggestions of the cunning are detrimental to the
subjects and advantageous to the ruler.[233]

[The head of the Chi family was richer than the duke of
Chou, and yet Ch`iu collected his imposts for him and increased
his wealth. The disciples might have beaten the drum and assailed
him.][234] Collecting for Chi, he did not know how wicked it was,
and that all the people comdemned him.[235]