University of Virginia Library

DISCOURSES ON SALT AND IRON

(Yen T'ieh Lun: Chaps. XX-XXVIII)[1]

Reprinted from the Journal of the North China
Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,
vol. LXV-1934, pp. 73-110)

By ESSON M. GALE, Ph.D.
Peter A. Boodberg, Ph.D., and T. C. Lin, Ph.D.,
collaborators.

Chapter XX.

MUTUAL RECRIMINATIONS.

(a) The Lord Grand Secretary: When the ancients
set as standard the Well-tithe System[2] and put into effect
regulations for homestead and hamlet, with every hearty
fellow busy tilling his plowland and field and every wench
tending her hemp and carl-hemp, no land lay fallow and
no man drifted idly; none but the artizan and the
merchant was allowed to live upon the increment of his
capital, none but the sturdy husbandman to enjoy the
fruit of his crops, none but those actually in control of
administration, to taste of the corollaries of office and
rank. But here we have now `Confucianists by profession'[3]
who, having laid aside plough and share, concentrate
on learning to discourse on matters unproven
and unprovable, wasting day after day and consuming

valuable time, without contributing in the least to actual
working problems. They come and go in their aimless
mayfly-like perambulations,[4] upturning no soil for their
food, rearing no silkworms for their clothing, but fraudulently
impersonating people of station even unto
encroaching on the farmers and encumbering the
administration, yea, constituting a genuine cause for
concern in our society!

(b) The Literati: When, perturbed by the disaster
of the Great Flood,[5] Yü personally undertook the labor
of dealing with it, wading through bogs and sleeping by
the roadside, he never entered his home even when
passing by its gate. In these moments, when he had
no time to pick up a fallen hairpin or turn back for his
hat forgotten where he had hung it, do you think he
could find leisure to till the land?[6] `Twas hateful to the
poet who could not remain silent: `tis hateful to me,
Ch'iu: I cannot conform,[7] exclaimed Confucius, so three
score and ten times[8] he harangued the princes east, west,
south, north, all without avail. Thereupon he retired and
culutivated the Way of the Kings, composed the Ch'un
Ch'iu and handed it down to posterity to serve as a
criterion and standard for the world unto eternity.
Would you deem that equipollent to common man and
woman's farming and weaving? Should the superior
man fail to move at the proper time, says the Chuan, there
will be no pageant of edification for the people. Therefore,
none but the superior man is to govern the common
sort, as without the common folk there will be no one to
support the superior man. The latter should not occupy
himself in farming or weaving after the fashion of every
Jack and Jane. Should superior men engage themselves
in the cultivation of land to the detriment of their studies
it would only point the road to anarchy.[9]

(c) The Lord Grand Secretary: When discoursing
on polity you are, Oh Literati, superior indeed to T'ang
and Yü, and higher than the autumn sky when talking

honor. You certainly blossom forth in speech—but we
have yet to see your fruits. In days of old when Kung-i
was chancellor of Lu under the reign of Duke Mu, Tzŭ
Ssŭ and Tzŭ Yüan served as his ministers, and lo! in
the north, they ceded territory to Ch'i down to the line
of the river Ssŭ, in the south, they cowered before the
Ch'u barbarians, in the west, they paid homage to the
state of Ch'in. When Mêng K'o took up his abode in
Liang, the troops of that state were smashed by Ch'i,
their high commander dead, their crown-prince, captive;
to the west, they were defeated by Ch'in and were forced
to abandon to the enemy frontier districts and relinquish
lands to the extent of losing all the territory within the
River and without.[10] Consider also Chung-ni's school,
his seventy disciples,[11] who abandoned father and mother,
broke up home and family, and followed Confucius bag
and baggage—they did not plow, they studied! and
anarchy meanwhile increased apace. Therefore, with
your chestful of jade chips do not deem yourselves
possessors of treasures, nor regard yourselves as
possessing Virtue through your droning of the Odes and
the Historical Documents and your carrying books by
the basketful. Our all-important task is to bring peace
to the nation and prosperity to the people without further
indulging in involved rhetoric and multifarious speeches.

(d) The Literati: Just as Yü perished for not
following Po-li Hsi's advice, so Duke Mu of Ch'in
achieved the hegemony as a result of adopting it. As
thus proved, doomed is he who employs not the worthy;
would you then expect such an one to avoid cession of
territory?[12] When Mencius arrived at Liang, King Hui
inquired of him on the way to profit, but he replied as to
humanity and justice—they could not even come to
terms, so Mencius finding no employment was forced to
leave, hiding his treasure in his bosom and speaking no
more of it.[13] Thus, it would not sate one's hunger, having
grain and not partaking of it, nor does it repair loss of

territory, when you perceive a worthy yet not employ him.
In Tyrant Chou's time there were at court the two
viscounts, Chi and Wei, and Chiao Ko and Chi Tzŭ
abroad, yet he could not keep them nor preserve his
dynasty.[14] Now, when you speak and they follow you
not, you admonish, and they hear you not, though you
be a man of superior talent, how can you prove to be of
benefit to government?

(e) The Lord Grand Secretary: All people find
delicious the oranges and pumeloes that are grown south
of the River, for all palates share the sense of taste; the
lovely tunes produced in Chêng and Wei are enjoyed by
all people for the sense of hearing is alike to all ears.
I-wu, a man of Yüeh, and Yu Yü, a Jung [barbarian],
could be understood only through interpreters, but both
were highly honored, the one in Ch'i, the other in Ch'in,
for in all men's hearts good and evil find the same
response. Thus, when Tsěng Tzŭ sang on the hillside,
the mountain birds came fluttering down; when the music
master Kuang stroked his lute, all the animals came
dancing to him, for there never was excellence that met
no response, and sincerity that found no answering call.
May we not infer that there is lack of sincere purpose on
your part? For what other reason could there be for
no visible actualization of your speeches and your
practices finding no meetness?

(f) The Literati: A sick man adverse to needle or
physic, P'ien Ch'iao himself would be unable to cure; a
prince unwilling to swallow the bitter truth, the worthiest
sage is unable to set aright. Thus, Hsia perished in spite
of Chieh having Kuan Lung-fêng at his side, and Shang
was extinguished, though there were three worthies with
the Yin. We have no reason to deplore the lack of
arguments such as were advanced by Yu Yü or I-wu; we
regret only there is no one to give ear to them as Dukes
Huan and Mu did. Thus it was that, went he east or
west, Confucius found no favorable reception, and Ch'ü
Yüan saw himself driven away from the kingdom of
Ch'u, an exile. It has been said, therefore: If we do
honest public service where shall we go and not be often
dismissed? And if we are willing to do dishonest public

service[15] ......to the end of our days, we may add, there
will be no lack of `visible actualization' of such as our
speeches would then be and no lack of `meetness to our
practices.'

(g) The Lord Grand Secretary: As a singer does
not strive to reach high falsetto, but puts value in following
closely the rhythm, so the expositor does not tarry
to fashion beauteous periods so that he may concentrate
upon the crux of matters under consideration. Though
one may possess a good voice, he cannot be said to be a
singer if he be ignorant of the principles of solfeggio, so
likewise he cannot be considered as one able to discourse
who, though he utter excellent words, is ignorant of the
intricacies of exposition. You pick your compass and
find fault with the square, clutch your water-level, but
criticize the plumb-line, the single hole—you know it
perfectly, the single vein or streak—you have investigated
it thoroughly, but poise and scale is somewhat entirely
beyond your knowledge. Like cicadas which never
behold the snow, you refuse to believe others when it
comes to things that are beyond your ken. Your sticking
obstinately to ancient script and attempting to meet with
it the requirements of the present age is just as
incongruous as trying to bring Orion and Scorpio
together and tuning a harp after having glued fast the
pegs. You may try your hardest, you will find it still
harder to make things fit. Thus it was that Confucius
was found of no use by his age and Mêng K'o found
himself slighted by the feudal lords.

(h) The Literati: The sun and moon shine in
splendour, but the blind see them not; thunderclaps
resound, but the deaf hear them not. To speak for the
benefit of those who know not rhyme nor reason, is but
to talk to the deaf and mute, dumber than cicadas
unaware of snow-drifts! Now, I Yin with all his wisdom,
T'ai Kung with all his accomplishments could not make
their words prevail before such as Chieh and Chou, not
because of any error on the part of the speakers, but
because of the default of the hearers. Thus Ching Ho
clasped to his bosom his gem-matrix and wept bitter tears
of blood, crying: `Where shall I get a master craftsman
who will cut my stone?'; and Ch'ü Yüan roamed along
the marsh side wailing: `Where shall I get a Kao Yao

who will decide my case?' There is no prince, we
believe, who would not like to search out worthy men
that they might assist him, who would not be glad to
employ an able man that might bring good government
to his state, but . . . . . . princes are misled by insinuations
and beguiled by flattery. As a result worthies and sages
are hidden from them as if with a screen while deceitful
sycophants are in control of the business of state. It is
due to this state of affairs that kingdoms go to their doom
and ruling houses fall while worthies and sages live in
indigence in their mountain caves. Formerly, Chao Kao,
a man of ordinary wisdom, seated himself on the seat of
power ten thousand fold beyond his ability, and consequently
brought to its ruin the kingdom of Ch'in, the
disaster engulfing him and all his family. He lost his
"harp" entirely: what kind of "tuning with pegs glued
fast" would you call that?

(i) The Lord Grand Secretary: What we would
call Literati of high grade are men whose wisdom and
ability are equal to making illustrious the art of ancient
kings, are men of parts and substance competent to walk
in their path. Such would thus be able to become leaders
and teachers of humanity should they remain at home,
and a law and an example to the world should they be
called to public service. But Literati of your type, such
as we have with us to-day, sing the praises of Yao and
Shun, when discussing matters of government, and talk
of Confucius and Mencius when setting forth the principles
of morals; let us but surrender to them some actual
problem of administration, and they are unable to make
any headway. While doting over the ways of the
Ancients, you never succeed in putting them into practice;
you speak straight, but make your path crooked; faithful
in principle, you are faithless in spirit; in your robes and
coifs you can be certainly distinguished from the villager,
but in essence there is nothing that marks you off from
the commonest sort. All your doctors, so-called straight
and true, have merely grasped the lucky opportunity of
the time in presenting themselves to make up the
prescribed number; we cannot possibly term them
enlighteningly selected. I see indeed no possibility yet
to discuss with them intelligently the principles of
government.

(j) The Literati: Heaven set the Three Luminaries
in order to lighten the course of time, the Son of Heaven
established high ministers to make manifest orderly rule.

It is said, therefore, that the high ministers of state at
once form the "contour" of the Four Seas and constitute
the "coloring" of Spiritual Progress. Theirs is the
responsibility of supporting the enlightened monarch's
dignity above, and theirs the business of completing the
work of His Sagely education below. It is they who
bring Yin and Yang into harmony and attune the four
seasons; they who bring peace to the masses and sustain
all mankind, so that the Hundred Clans working in
harmony may show no sign of frustrated aspirations and
the barbarians on the four corners of the world, yielding
meekly to Imperial Virtue, may give no cause for worry
by a rebellious attitude. Such is the duty of high
ministers and that which should engage the attention of
those worthy of it, as were I Yin and Dukes Chou and
Shao, talents equal to the demands of the offices of the
Three Kung, and T'ai T'ien and Hung Yao, men able to
fulfill the charges of the Nine Ch'ing.[16] If we, the
Literati have failed to come up to the mark in the Sage
Monarch's enlightened selection, is it not also true that
those now in control of administration cannot be said
to possess overbounding virtue.

(k) Displeased, the Lord Grand Secretary colored
and made no reply.

(l) The Literati: Eclipsed is the administration of
a court when there is no loyal minister within it; tottering
is the seat of a lord who has no honest vassal. After
Jen Tso spoke straight and true of the faults of his
prince, Marquis Wên mended his speech and conduct and
came to be praised as a worthy prince; after Yüan Yang
criticized Marquis Chiang's arrogance and haughtiness
right in his face, the latter finished by earning great
happiness thereby. Therefore, he who is constantly
battering at the shortcomings of his lord, running
straight into the danger of death, is a loyal servant; and
he is a straightforward knight who dares to face an angry
countenance in correcting the misdeeds of a high minister.
Humble provincials that we are we cannot criticize you
behind your back in our alley-asides. Now that the
Ruler of Men has drawn his bow to full strength, that
his instructions and regulations are taut and unslackened,
we find that, in many cases salaries and emoluments are
given to the wrong persons, so as to encumber farmer,

merchant and artizan alike; that market profits never
revert to the people, whose expectations are not filled up.
We find, moreover, that the principles of Emperor and
King are mostly in decadence and are cultivated no more.
Teeming, teeming are the knights at court says the Book
of Odes.[17] It is our earnest purpose that this plan be
applied to remedy the situation; it is not that we insist
merely upon pouring forth empty verbiage.

Chapter XXI.

HOW WAYS DIVERGE.

(a) The Lord Grand Secretary: It has been your
wont to tell us that the Seventy Disciples who received
in person instructions in the science of the Sage and
ranked so famous in the School of Confucius were all
of the caliber that fitted them to become ministers and
chancellors to the feudal lords, while several of them
were qualified to sit facing the south as rulers themselves.
For public administration, there were Jan Yu and Chi
Lu; for oratory and dialectics, Tsai Wo and Tzŭ Kung.[18]
Tsai Wo, who obtained hold over affairs and enjoyed so
great a favor in Ch'i, found, nevertheless, that his
principles could not be put into effect when T'ien Ch'ang
fomented trouble, and perished himself in the great
courtyard, while his patron, Duke Chien, was being
murdered in the T'an Tower.[19] Tzŭ Lu took up service in
Wei, but during the revolution provoked by K'uei he was
unable to save his prince, and while Ch'u[20] fled Tzŭ Lu's

body was embrined in Wei.[21] Tzŭ Kung and Tzŭ Kao
made their escape; they could not die for their prince in
the hour of his peril. They enjoyed handsome salaries
bestowed upon them, but were unable to requite their
benefactor, sat in the honorable offices conferred upon
them but proved themselves incapable to safeguard the
interests of their patron. Why, pray, did they put so
much stock in their own persons and so little in their
prince's. Fellow-students and confrères, all these men
thought themselves well-versed in the moral principles of
ancient and modern times and able to make illustrious the
decorous interdependence of prince and minister. Yet
while some fittingly died, others sought safety in flight.
These several gentlemen followed divergent roads.
Wherein lies this contumacy to principle?

(b) The Literati: Duke Shang[22] of Sung perished
himself because of his failure to employ K'ung Fu earlier
though he knew his great worth; Duke Chuang of Lu
likewise knew the ability of Chi Yu, but surrendered him
the administration too late to save his state from anarchy.
The prince of Wei surrounded himself with specious
flatterers and estranged men of talent; thus, Tzŭ Lu
remained at P'u, while K'ung K'u was in charge of the
government. Duke Chien paid no heed to Tsai Wo and
let the latter's secret plans leak out. Thus it came about
that the two princes suffered, one exile, the other death,
and the disaster encompassed their faithful ministers.
The other two gentlemen, though they had charges, yet
were not given an opportunity to participate in their
ruler's policies, they could die for him, but so could they
also choose to live: whether they stayed or departed, their
honor remained unimpaired. Yen Ying could not be
termed disloyal to his prince when he did not die in the
trouble of Ts'ui Ch'ing; and could Viscount Wei be said
to lack in humanity when he fled the anarchy of the Yin?

6 I.e. Tzŭ Kung and Tzŭ Kao.

(c) The Lord Grand Secretary: The unadulterated
simplicity of the supremely beautiful nothing can
embellish further; so no artificial elaboration can add a
thing to supreme worth which holds fast to its essence.
Thus a jade solitaire needs not be carved, nor a beautiful

pearl decorated with designs. Now, Chung Yu and Jan
Ch'iu had not the toughness of hance timber, nor was
the gem of their talent enclosed in a Sui Ho matrix; to
spend one's efforts to embellish them would be similar to
carving decayed wood or polishing a lead knife, to beautifying
Mo Mu or painting a clay figure. Such as the
latter though decorated with all the five colors would be
resplendant enough as a finished product, but let him
but come into contact with driving rain and raging waves
then he will turn to slush. To dote too much on ancient
principles with the Odes and the Documents for pillow
and mat would bring no peace in moments of danger or
good government in times of anarchy. You will find as
much company with such methods as field watchmen
chasing chickens.

7 Cf. Shuo Yüan (Confucius speaking): [OMITTED]
[OMITTED].

(d) The Literati: If it were not for Learning there
would be nothing wherewith to cultivate one's personality;
nothing would sustain Virtue, if it were not for
Propriety. The Empire's beautiful treasure was the
jade-matrix of Ho Shih, but its beauty became manifest
only after it underwent the skilled treatment of an expert
gem-cutter. The most winsome in all the Empire was
the Lady Mao, but her beauty become recognized only
after she had made use of fragrant ointments and rich
powder. The greatest Sage of the world was Chou Kung,
but even he had to pass through the hands of virtuous
teachers and a course of instruction before he became
perfect. But at the present time we see mediocrities
scarcely rising higher than the common level disdaining
study and instruction and relying exclusively upon their
stupid selves and yet taking upon their shoulders immense
responsibilities. This course of action can only be
compared with trying to cross river or sea without oar or
rudder only to be carried away by the first encountered
storm and sunk in an abyss a hundred fathoms deep or to
drift eastward to the shoreless Ocean. From such a
predicament do you expect to get away with only being a
little "squashed"?

(e) The Lord Grand Secretary: Things being
flexible and inflexible in their very nature, beautiful and
ugly in their permanent form, the sage man can only

follow the natural bent, he cannot hope to alter nature.[23]
Confucius succeeded only in changing the outward dress
of two or three of his disciples, he could not convert their
hearts. Thus Tzŭ Lu unbuckling his long sword and
doffing his bully's cap bent in low obeisance at the gate
of the Master, but in his treatment of teacher and friends
he continued in his boisterous ways and remained at
heart a rowdy. Tsai Yü slept in the daytime and wished
to shorten the three year long period of mourning. A
wall of dirt is unfit for plastering, thereupon exclaimed
Confucius, A man like Yu will not come to a natural
death.[24] Hence, attempting to learn culture outwardly
while lacking its essence within is like trying to paint on
grease and carve in ice—though one may have virtuous
teachers and excellent friends, it is nothing but a waste
of time and energy. Thus the best teacher cannot
improve upon Ch'i Shih, nor can most fragrant ointment
transform Mo Mu.

(f) The Literati: A country bumpkin would cover
his nose at the sight of beauty covered with filth, but the
homeliest man in gorgeous attire may serve in the
sacrifices to Shang Ti. If these two men, Tzŭ Lu and
Tsai Yü, had not passed through the school of the Sage,
they would never have escaped the lot of the beggar; how
would they have acquired their reputation as lords and
ministers? As the whetstone is the wherewithal by
which a blade is sharpened, so study is the means to bring
out all the possibilities of latent ability. Said Comfucius:
A Wassail-bowl that is not a bowl, what a bowl! what a
bowl![25] Thus if man apply himself to improve upon it,
it will come to serve as a vessel in the ancestral temple;
if not, then it must have an innate flaw in its grain. If
a sword forged in Kan Yüeh remain unsharpened, the
common man will disdain it, but after the craftsman has
applied his skill to it, the ruler of men will put it on to
appear at court. Now, an ugly hag under the impression
that she is beauteous, will not try to embellish herself; a
stupid fellow who deems himself wise will not study.
Unbeknown to themselves, they make of their persons a
laughing stock. Their fault lies in their disinclination to
use the services of others and in trusting unto themselves.

Chapter XXII.

IMPEACHING THE WORTHY.

(a) The Lord Grand Secretary: Broken will be
the inflexible, and bent, the flexible[26] : thus Chi Yü died
because of his stiff-neckedness, and Tsai Wo was
murdered being yielding and weak. But if thes two
men had not acquired learning, they probably would not
have died their death. How so? Learning made them
proud of themselves and boastful of their abilities;
knowing little, grabbing much; wishing that men follow
them and unable to follow others; self-admiring, when
no one even glanced at them; self-appraising when no
one even bargained for them. This is how they ended
their lives by being murdered and finished by being
embrined and enmarinaded.[27] We have not yet seen them
made into "temple vessels," but we saw them utterly
disgraced before the world. At that time would you
also send them flitting eastward to find rest?[28]

(b) The Literati: When the noble steed hitched to
a salt wain struggled up the slopes of T'ai Hang with bent
head[29] the butcher cast glances at it, clutching his cleaver.
When in dire poverty T'ai Kung was carrying his
peddler's wares at Ch'ao Ko, the tousle-heads gathered in
crowds to mock him. It was not that at that time they
did not possess far-carrying sinews and the speed of
fleeting coursers, but there were no Wên Wang or Po Lo
who would recognize their worth. Tzŭ Lu and Tsai Wo
during their lives did not happen to receive promotion at
the hands of a Po Lo, but ran into a mad butcher. Hence
the Superior Man sorrowed for them: A man like Yu
will not come to a natural death. Is heaven thus
afflicting me?[30] K'ung Fu was involved in the troubles of

Hua Tu, but he could not be said to be unloyal; Ch'iu Mu
passed through the disaster of Sung Wan, but he cannot
be said not to be worthy.

(c) The Lord Grand Secretary: Among the
scholars of to-day there are none with the ability of T'ai
Kung or the innate capacity of a noble steed, but there
are indeed wasps and scorpions that swollen with poison
only harm themselves. Such were Ch'êng Hsiung of
Tung Hai and Hu Chien of Ho Tung. From the ranks of
common soldiers these two men were promoted for their
learning to post of magistrates. Yet not only did they
prove to be conceited and unwilling to cooperate with
anyone, but called in, they would not come; pushed out,
they would not go. Capering and flippant, stubborn and
impolite, insolent lackeys to the princesses, and trespassers
towards the high ministers, they tried forcibly
to do what they knew was impossible. Their eagerness
to make a name for themselves, led them into unlawful
ways and sure enough they lost their lives. We cannot
perceive their achievement to any extent, but we have
witnessed their execution between the two pylons.
Suffering the extreme penalty they could not finish their
days in peaceful old age. Effrontery they took for
wisdom, blazoning others' faults for straightforwardness,
impudence for bravery.[31] It is indeed proper that they
should meet with calamity.

(d) The Literati: These two honorable gentlemen
had in their bosoms hearts of the purest whiteness and
walked in the path of loyalty and uprightness; they
cultivated straightforwardness in serving their superiors
and strained their forces in making manifest the public
good. Upholding law and promoting order, they did not
favor relatives, nor put great emphasis upon safeguarding
their wives and children, nor pay attention to the
promotion of their private fortunes. Yet in the end they
did not succeed in escaping from jealous and slanderous
persons and succumbed to the pushing of the all too
numerous `crooks.'[32] This is the explanation for
unexpected penalties being heaped upon them and their
achievements left incomplete. For when members of the
reigning clan are not upright, then laws and regulations
are not enforced; when the ruler's right hand men are

not upright, then treachery and evil flourish. When
Chao Shê executed the law upon the lord of P'ing Yüan,
and Fan Chü upon Marquis Jang, good government was
preserved in the two states and at the same time both
houses were kept intact. Thus, when the ruler commits
a mistake, the minister should rectify it; when superiors
err, inferiors should criticize them. When high ministers
are upright, can magistrates be anything else? It is
indeed highly remiss of you who are in actual control of
administration to find fault with others instead of turning
to examine your own persons. For Ch'ü Yüan's drowning
in the deep can be traced to the slander of Tzŭ-shu, but
that Kuan Tzŭ was able to put into effect his principles
was due to the efforts of Pao-shu. At the present
moment we cannot detect any efforts on the part of
Pao-shu, but we envisage only the tragedy of the Mi Lo.
Even though we would entertain the "finishing our days
in peaceful old age," could we hope to realize it?

Chapter XXIII.

PURSUING THE WAY.[33]

(a) Secretaries! called the Lord Grand Secretary,
but before they could answer he turned to the Cancellarius[34]
and said: These Literati have been learning how
to argue since they first tied their hair.[35] They are so
surcingled with words you cannot tear them away from
their periods which seem to run in circles and their
roulades unstopping like the potter's wheel. Their
tirades are as showy as the flowers of spring, but are as
futile as an attempt to embrace the wind. They bedeck
their emptiness so as to injure substance and discourse
on antiquity to the detriment of things modern. If we
follow them now, then the government will be deprived
of its revenue, for their vacuous proposals cannot really
be put into effect. If we do not adopt their plans, these

literati will continue to criticize us. For too long a time
the din raised by this mob has been unbearable in the
great metropolitan offices of the ministers. Now would
you suggest a feasible plan that we could adopt so as to
be in accordance with antiquity and at the same time
clarify the present situation?

(b) Then advanced the Cancellarius and said:
Duke Wên of Chin was cunning but lacked uprightness,
while Duke Huan of Ch'i was upright but never cunning.
Their motives were not alike, yet both of them reached
the goal of the Hegemony.[36] If one be obliged to follow
old ways unswervingly and carry on old precedents
unchangingly, then culture would never supplant crudeness
and carts with rimless wheels would still be with
us. Hence some create anew, while others transmit; then
only can laws and regulations be consonant to the people's
needs and instruments and implements expedient for
use. Confucius[37] in his interviews with the three rulers
expressed different ideas and Yen Tzŭ adopted varying
principles in serving as Chancellor to three princes; not
that these two men insisted upon contradicting themselves,
but that the exigencies of the times were different.
Our lords high ministers have now already set out upon
the road of the great undertaking and planted firmly the
root of inexhaustible profit. I wish you would not hark
back to minute analysis of antiquity and would cease
dragging in your Confucianist and Mihist arguments[38]

5 Cf. Discourses, ch. VII, p. 43, note 2.

(c) The Literati: K'uang, the Music-master, when
harmonizing the pentachord never missed the sol-fa;[39] the
sage Emperors never departed from charity and justice,

when they regulated the world. Thus, while there have
been nominal changes in administration, there has never
been with them any real change of principle. In the days
of high antiquity, from the Yellow Emperor down to the
Three Kings,[40] there was none who did not make illustrious
his virtuous instructions, promote academies anā
schools,[41] exalt the charitable and the just, and establish
firmly enlightenment and culture. That was the
immutable law and principle for a hundred generations.
By following them closely, the Yin and the Chou
prospered, while the sovereign of Ch'in tampered with
the laws and perished. When they spoke in the Odes,
Though there be no old nor experienced men there are
still code and statute,[42] they meant law and education.
Thus, when these dèteriorate, they should be restored and
systematized, and put into effect after systematization.
What need is there to make them over again?

(d) The Cancellarius: It does not profit one's
appearance to talk of Hsi Shih's beauty, nor does
discoursing on Yao's and Shun's virtues bring benefit to
government. Now, O Literati, you tell us nothing of the
means to achieve good administration, and talk only of
the lack of achievement on the part of administrators; it
is like saying nothing of the methods of cultivating land
while keeping on admiring the stores and bins of the rich.
For as he who desires grain should take cognizance of
the seasons, so he who wishes good administration should
follow the needs of the age. Thus, the Lord of Shang
standing in splendid isolation, alone saw clearly the
alternative between preservation and ruin, but found it
impossible to cooperate with those who remained
entangled with the ways of the vulgar because of their
obstructing his achievements and their manifest shortsightedness.
The mediocre man finds contentment in
habit and usage, the foolish one sticks to his bit of
learning. Thus as it took three years after the invention
of boats and carts before people were taught to find
satisfaction in them, so only after the Lord of Shang's
laws were firmly established, the people learned to trust
them. There are some with whom one can associate in

judgment.[43] Indeed, O Literati, you can be entrusted
with holding the builder's line and following already
carved-out patterns, but surely not to take part in
discussing aught beyond your own `principles and
methods.'

(e) The Literati: Wide in his knowledge, the
superior man still maintains reserve as to lacunae in it;
a transmitter and not an originator,[44] though sage and
perspicacious, he plans little, though wise and sagacious,
he acts sparingly. Thus it is that his achievement is
complete and falls not, his fame firmly established and
dulls not. But the mean man, shallow in wit but large in
plans, shoulders burdens too heavy for his debility and
languidness, and thus finds himself forced to give up in
the middle of the road.[45] Such ones were Su Ch'in and
Shang Yang: they would have none of the laws of the
former kings, they disregarded the ways of the Sages,
and relied solely upon themselves—and so went to their
doom. A mean man sitting in resplendent station says
the Book of. Changes, will fall, high as he may be.[46] Of
such there never has been one who ended his life peacefully
when he strove not for fullness in principle and
constancy in virtue. Thus though he might at first
ascend to Heaven, he will fall to Earth. When Yü
regulated the flood, the people' realized the benefit to be
derived from his activities, and there was none who did
not appreciate his accomplishment; when Shang Yang
established his laws, the people knew the harm to be
expected therefrom and there was none who did not fear
punishment. Therefore, the prince of Hsia affirmed his
achievement and achieved sovereignty, while Shang Yang
perished as soon as his laws were put into effect. Like
Shang Yang you may stand alone in the wisdom of your
plans, but the world is not ready to bear witness to
your `lonely' discernment; while we, the Literati,
though we may be unworthy to associate with you in
judgment of the present world, will also escape the
calamity of being crushed under your loads.[47]

Chapter XXIV.

ASSERTIONS AND ASPERSIONS.

(a) The Cancellarius: As once said by Yen Tzŭ,[48]
the Ritualists[49] are flowery in speech but short in fulfillment;
meticulous as to music, but lax as to the people's
needs. Prolonging mourning even at the cost of the
living, lavish in funerals so as to injure livelihood[50] ;
their rites are so perplexing as to be difficult
of execution and their ways so devious as to be difficult
to follow. Singing the praises of days past and gone,
they speak maladvisedly of the present. Disparaging
everything they see, they only treasure what they have
heard; holding all men as being fundamentally crooked,
they deem themselves straight as a rule.[51] Thus it was
that Yen I came to be executed and degraded and Ti Shan
found death at the hands of the Hsiung-nu. Occupying
such positions as they had and yet finding fault with the
court, living in their age and yet backbiting their
superiors, (it is only too natural that) they ended by
being disgraced and ruining their lives. Well now, is
there any one among you who would have taken up their
burden and shared their tragedy?

(b) The Literati: That which keeps moral laxity in
check is Good Form (li),[52] and Music is the wherewithal

by which morals are improved; it is when Etiquette (li)
is flourishing and Music is orthodox, that penalties and
punishments are undeviating. Hence, just as people
never suffer from floods when the dams and dikes are
kept whole, so there are never revolutionary disturbances
among the people whenever decorum and justice take
root. We have thus never heard of a case when good
government would be attained with Decorum (li) and
Justice (i) laid low and dikes and dams broken through.
Speaking of Good Form (li) Confucius said[53] : In
ceremonies in general, it is better to be simple than
lavish; and in the rites of mourning, heartfelt distress is
better than observance of detail. It is clear that it was
far from being the intention of those who created the
rites to injure human lives and impair business; dignified
carriage and self-possessed gentility were surely not
intended to bring confusion into ethics and deprave
morals. A well-governed state is careful as to its
ceremonial; a tottering one is diligent in the application
of its laws. Remember ancient Ch'in which swallowed up
all the Empire by force of arms, how its disasters were
aggravated by the monstrous vagaries[54] of Li Ssŭ and
Chao Kao. Then it was that we saw the ancient arts
abolished and the time-honored ceremonies fall, all
reliance put into penal laws and the Confucian and Mihist
doctrines passing completely into obscurity.[55] Blocked
was the path of the scholar and gagged the mouths of
men. Daily the flatterers forged ahead and those on high
never heard their mistakes criticized. This was how
Ch'in lost the Empire and brought to ruin its own
sanctuaries!

It fell out therefore for the sages who strove to
restore order first to mete out punishment for those men
who by their cunning and artful words so propped up
wrong that it entailed the collapse of the nation. Now,
you, sir, whence come you with your store of aphorisms
that spell the crack of doom for the state? You, the high
ministers, occupying such a post, you give no thought to
rectifying your ways, but have all your mind on aye-ayeing

your superiors, cringing before their slightest frown
or promptly trimming your sails before their wind. 'Tis
hateful to us to see such low-fawning and about-facing
worthy of the meanest man which leads only to fortify
those whom you serve in their faults. Therefore, though
we know well these words may cost us our lives, we cannot
suffer to be led into your train, O tribe of compromisers,
yea, spare us not your fetters and chains! Ah, woe!

(c) The Cancellarius: One is sure to find a village
where there are spreading trees; an everglade, where
there are rushes: this expresses well the affinity of
homogeneous things. Virtue never dwells alone, said
Confucius, it always has neighbors.[56] Thus, rises a T'ang,
lo! there enters I Yin, and exeunt the wicked. There has
yet to be a case when evil ministers kept their places
below when an enlightened monarch sits on high. Now,
the late Sovereign[57] himself started on the way of charity
and wisdom when he undertook the task of ruling all
within the seas: he summoned and selected scholars of
supreme ability and excellent worth so as to insure that
none but the good would find employment; in pursuing
and chastising evil ministers he did not spare even those
closest to him. He made every effort to seek out the
worthy and expel the incapable, just as Yao did promote
such as Shun and Yü, and executed K'un and exiled Huan-tou.
With all that you refer to us as being a "tribe of
compromisers"! If this be true then should it not be
indeed a case of ministers aye-aye-ing an erring ruler?

11 This doubtless refers to the revolt and subsequent death of
the crown prince Chü, son of the Empress Wei. The former was
charged by Chiang Ch'ung with having cast a spell on the Emperor.
Chiang Ch'ung was first killed by the prince who himself was slain.
Other members of the Imperial family were implicated. Cf.
Discourses, Glossary, p. 132 sub Chiang Ch'ung.

(d) The Literati: Said Kao Yao in reply to Shun:
It all depends on knowing the people, which is considered
hard even by the Emperor.[58] During the time of the
Great Flood, Yao stood alone aggrieved and worried not
knowing how to regulate it; but once he obtained the
services of Shun and Yü, the nine provinces enjoyed

peace. Therefore, even if there is an enlightened
Monarch like Yao, his pure virtue will not prevail unless
there are assisting hands like Shun's and Yü's. The
Spring and Autumn criticized the fact that there were
rulers, but no ministers. During the time of the late
Emperor, there was no sufficient number of good
ministers and hence the evil ones got their chance. When
Yao got Shun and Yü, K'un was killed and Huan-tou was
executed; when Chao Chien-tzŭ got Shu Hsiang, Shêng
Ch'ing-chien was dismissed.[59] The case is well stated in
the proverb: Until one sees the virtuous, one does not
recognize a traitorous minister, or in the words of the
Odes: When I do not see the virtuous, my heart is full
of worry. When I have seen the virtuous, my heart
settles down.[60]

(e) The Cancellarius: Yao employed K'un and
Huan Tou, but exiled one and executed the other when he
got Shun and Yü. He exiled or executed them because
of their guilt, and hence in the Empire all yielded to him
for he had punished its evil ones. The ruler of men looks
for service among the common people. Yen I was a
police constable at Chi Nan. The late Emperor promoted
him and bestowed on him a high position, until he reached
the rank of Superior Minister. Ti Shan rose from the
plain-clothed to the post of Councillor to the house of
Han. They both occupied the position of Shun and Yü
and held the central power of the Empire. They were
unable, moreover, to achieve anything conductive to good
government but on the contrary were found guilty of
criticizing the Emperor. Hence the punishment inflicted
on Huan Tou was imposed on them and even more, they
suffered the extreme penalty of the law. The worthy
receive their reward while the inferior suffer their
punishment. This is certainly just. Why wonder then,
O Literati?

(f) The Literati: Parties to a discussion should
support each other with reason and admonish each other
following logic; in striving after the good not seek
victory, and in yielding to reason, not feel shame at
being worsted. If we try to confound each other with

falsehood, and confuse each other by rhetoric, each side
priding itself on having the last word, each striving after
victory at any cost, this would be destroying all the value
of the debate. Now, Su Ch'in and Chang I completely
dazzled and befuddled the feudal lords, but upset The
Myriad Chariots[61] and caused rulers of men to lose their
grasp: they were certainly eloquent, but theirs was the
path to anarchy. The Superior Man decried the impossibility
to serve one's prince along with servile fellows,
for he feared that should they obtain a hearing there
would be no length to which they would not go.[62] Now,
sir, you do not want to heed the dictates of Right and
Reason so that you may fittingly assist the minister and
the Chancellor, but only follow and meekly obey your
masters. You love to make extemporary speeches and
never weigh their consequences. If we be judges of your
qualifications as a subordinate officer, it would seem meet
to confer upon you the highest penalty. Keep your
peace, sir, for the time being.

(g) The Cancellarius[63] : Scholars living in this
world, so have I heard, should have enough clothes to
cover their bodies and enough food to be able to supply
their parents. At home, they should possess sufficient
means to take care of one another; abroad, they should
depend on no one. One is in a position to undertake the
responsibilities of a family only after one has proved to
be able to care for himself; is in a position to take up
office only when his family is well managed. Hence he
who feeds on coarse grain is not fit to talk of filial piety,
and he whose wife and children are hungering and cold
is unfit to talk of compassion, while he who has
established no permanent business is not fit to discuss real
problems. These three handicaps, which you, living in
this world and maintaining this bodily existence, seem
to share, appear to me amply sufficient to make you hold
your peace.

Chapter XXV.

FILIAL PIETY AND FILIAL SUPPORT.

(a) The Literati: He who supports his parents
best does not do so necessarily with fat viands, and he
who clothes his parents best does not do so necessarily
with rich embroideries. The consummation of filial
piety lies in dedicating everything one has to the service
of his parents: thus the commonest man with his sheer
labor and industry may still have ample means to fulfill
the rites, and the poorest man whose food is pulse and
water his only drink can still adequately express his
reverence. The filial piety of the present day, said
Confucius, merely means to feed one's parents . . . . . . but
without reverence wherein lies the difference?[64] The
highest filial piety consists, therefore, in nourishing one's
parents' ambition, next comes nourishing their passing
whims, and then only nourishing their bodies.[65] The
value of filial piety lies in the form, not in being bent
upon mere providing. If everything is in accordance
with form and hearts are in harmony, one can be counted
as filial even though provisions are not complete. The
eastern neighbor slaughtering a cow, says the Book of
Changes, is not the equal of the western neighbor
performing the sacrifice.[66] Thus though rich and prominent
one may be, if he is without propriety he is not
the equal of one who is filial and brotherly, though poor
and humble. Within the inner apartments, fulfill filial
piety to the end; without them, fulfill brotherly love; in
journeying with friends, fulfill trust. These three things
are the consummation of Hsiao [OMITTED]. The founding of a
home or a patrimony does not mean mere accumulation of
wealth; discharging one's filial duties in serving one's
parents does not mean merely supplying them with fresh
foods. All depends, on the other hand, on following their
smile or frown, conforming to their wishes and fulfilling
all the rules of propriety and justice.

(b) The Cancellarius: At the age of eighty a man
is called a t'ieh, at the age of seventy he is a mao. A

septuagenarian[67] does not feel full without meat nor warm
without silk. Sweet and rare food for their palates, a
pious son would say therefore, clothes warm and light
jor their bodies![68] Tsêng Tzŭ must have had wine and
meat to support Tsêng Hsi.[69] Without his cap properly
adjusted Kung-hsi Ch'ih himself would be unable to
discharge properly his duty of sustaining his parents,
but without rich and savory fare, be he Tsêng Tzŭ or
Min Tzŭ, one cannot fulfill to the end this duty. Form is
not an empty cloak: there must be substance before it is
made into the father-son relationship. Rather be
superfluous in provision and deficient in etiquette than
abundant in etiquette and deficient in provision. I cannot
see any value, however perfect be the execution of rites,
in meticulously washing the cup in order to fill it with
mere water, and ascend and descend steps ceremoniously
only to present coarse and unhulled rice.

(c) The Literati: Not without wines and meat was
the Chou Emperor Hsiang's mother; her food and clothes
were certainly incomparable to those of a Tsêng Hsi.
Yet that Emperor earned the notorious reputation of
being unfilial, for he was unable to serve his mother
properly. The Superior Man puts value on the form of
performing filial duty, but the mean man is only bent on
provisions. Now if you beckon to one with a `Hi, come
hither' and throw him the food, be he a mere beggar, he
would not take it.[70] Though the food be delicious, the
Superior Man[71] would not partake of it if the rules
of propriety are disregarded: thus no guest would take
part in the sacrifice, if the host neglects to prepare the
offering personally. This proves that Form is the thing
that counts, the food offering is of slight consequence.

(d) The Cancellarius: Among filial sons there are
no greater than those who put to the disposal of their
parents the entire Empire or a whole state; next come
those who sustain their parents with their salary; then
those who nourish them by the fruit of their labor.

Thus, king, duke and ruler of men stand highest in the
list; next to them, ministers and officials. Now let us
examine how it is done in one or another family. There
are worthy sons among those on the road to power over
this world who supply their elders with high halls and
spacious chambers, comfortable carriages and big horses,
light and warm clothing, and sweet and tasty food.
There are others who clothe them in coarse stuff and
leather caps, leave them to dwell in beggar's alleys,
provide them for the day, but not for the morrow, with
the coarsest grains and vegetables for food, with a chance
to see meat but on the fall and winter sacrifices.[72] They
upset their aged parents' stomachs, stuffing them with
salads, as if they were truck gardens. Now, when a
son feeds his parents with the coarse foods that a beggar
would not take, though he wished to do it with all
ceremony, there would be no virtue whatever therein.

(e) The Literati: He who steals his position
possessing no ability to occupy it and he who accepts
salary having no achievement to his credit, though he
possess wealth and honor, can only offer to his parents
the aliments of a Chih or a Ch'iao. Though his high
terraces might command a distant view and his dinner
table might be laid out to cover one hundred square feet,
he still cannot be termed filial. One's aged parents'
stomachs are not bags for the loot of thieves, why then
always try to fill them with things obtained through
disregard of principle? Now if you take unproperly-won
things and positions, calamity will follow wherever
enters ill-gotten gain. The very lives of your parents
are liable to be engulfed in your calamities, how could
they hope then to eat meat at the fall and winter sacrifice?
Tsêng Shên and Min Tzu had the reputation of filial sons
though they never had aliments of ministers or chancellors;
while Emperor Hsiang of Chou with all the wealth
of the Empire at his disposal became notorious for being
unable to serve properly his parents. Therefore, it is not
filial piety to offer rich nourishment with scant ceremony
and though one may thus deplete all his stores in order

to feed his parents, it still will not be filial piety.

(f) The Cancellarius:[73] Those that stand highest
in the performance of filial duty wait upon their parents'
countenance; next come those who give them security;
then those who are careful to preserve their lives.[74]
Formerly Ch'ên Yü turned against the Han and was
beheaded on the banks of the Chih and Wu Pei by his
seditious activities caused the extermination of all his
family. More recently, Chu-fu Yen was executed for
non-conformity and Lü Pu-shu met death and disgrace
through playing too freely with his tongue. All these
men were so careless in their conduct that the penalties
they suffered extended to their innocent parents. It can
be easily seen from their example that empty form is of
no profit to one. As culture and substance go hand in
hand, so etiquette and nourishment should both be
dispensed at the same time, only then can one be termed
filial. Filial piety lies in material things, not in meritorious
appearance. Preservation of life depends on
circumspection, not in running wild with words.

(g) The Literati: He is the most unfilial of all
who speaks without sincerity, makes promises but does
not keep them, shows no courage in the face of difficulties,
and no loyalty in serving his prince. Said Mencius:
The officers of to-day, the ministers of to-day are all
criminals[75] for they all conformed to the prince's whims
and connived at his evil acts. Now, you sir, are one
devoid of loyalty and faith, bringing confusion into the
administration with your artful speeches and seeking to
obtain favor with your proposals of a sycophant. Indeed,
such as you are not to be tolerated in this world. Unwavering
in holding to the unity of principle is the scholar,
says the Spring and Autumn, unmindful of anything
outside his loyalty to the Right.[76] He should concentrate
all his efforts on nothing but the performance of his
official duties. Thus, it is a crime to speak high, while

one's position is lowly, and it is impudence to talk out of
turn. The Imperial edict directed the high ministers to
take part in this debate and you take time for waging
your empty verbal battles.

Chapter XXVI.

CUTTING EXCHANGES.

(a) The Cancellarius: Would a heaped-up tumulus
in seeking to reach a stately height reject an extra cubit
of earth[77] ; would a superior man in seeking to widen his
reputation disregard the words of an humble faggotcarrier?
For he is widely versed who has observed much,
and he is wise who much has retained; clogged the mind
of him who is adverse to censure and friendless he who
puts trust solely in himself. Hence he will never be
remiss who seeks counsel even unto the lowest of the
lowest, and undulled in his achievements he who seeks
suggestions even among the commons as says the Book of
Odes: Go thou to the humble shepherd and woodcutter.[78]
Now since plain-clothed people are all given freedom to
vent their opinions, how much the more should not I, a
secretary to my lords, the high ministers, also be allowed
to do so? It is true that the Spring and Autumn does
not record the deeds of mere scholars, yet it notes the
fact that a certain Huan acted as steward.[79] Although
they do not engage me in office, said Confucius, yet

I should have been consulted about them.[80] However
incapable is my humble self, I, too, have inclined my ears
to hear instructions, holding up my skirts, have submitted
to a teacher's directions and have joined a school to learn
how one should walk in the superior man's path. If
what you, Literati, have said is right, then what harm
can the words of my humble self do? If what you said
is wrong, who could refrain to say it is wrong, though he
be an insignificant cancellarius?

(b) The Literati: Assisting men in righteousness
is called loyalty, but misleading people into evil is
treachery. He who grieves at his master's faults and
approaches him with good advice, is a loyal minister to
his prince and a true vassal of his lord. Let a lord have
three blunt , said Confucius, and that lord will
never lose his patrimony though he be devoid of
principle.[81] But you, sir, holding now the rank of a
steward, you have a heart where no feeling of loyalty or
right is present. It is beyond your power to straighten
out the crooked, or rectify the evil. You follow the
current to safeguard yourself, and bow to the wind to
please your superiors, blindly accepting what your
superiors declare and deviously following them in what
they practice, like a shadow pursuing its body and an
echo repeating a sound, never being able to distinguish
right from wrong. You have donned the Confucian
dress, capped yourself with the Confucian cap but you
will never be able to follow in the Confucian path. You
are no true `Confucian!' Not unlike a painted clay
dragon with head and eyes complete in every detail, but
which is only a mock dragon. The shepherd's purse
looks like a vegetable, but is quite different in taste; jade
and stone look similar but differ in kind. You are not a
Confucian who, after Master K'ung, clings to the Classics
and holds fast to principle, you are of those Confucianists
lowly about facing and fawning upon the ministers; you
are none of our kind. Said Confucius when Jan Yu
became steward to Chi Shih and kept on still increasing
his income: You may beat the drum my sons and attack
him.[82] We do not hold, therefore, a helper of Chieh for
wise, nor Chieh's tax-gatherer for altruistic.

Silenced, the Cancellarius made no reply.

Chapter XXVII.

SHRILL POLEMICS.

(a) The Lord Grand Secretary: It is because of
his solicitude for the myriads of his subjects and the
deep concern over the continuing unrest on the Northern
frontier that the Enlightened Monarch, the molder of his
age, sent out envoys to seek out worthies and literati of
high grade and to make diligent inquiries after scholars
of high principle.[83] His wish, meseems, was that diverse
proposals and various plans be submitted to him so that
he might with unprejudiced mind lend an indulgent ear
to the most feasible. But there is no one among you
doctors, who has been found able to advance a plan outof-the-ordinary
or a far-reaching scheme respecting the
questions of the Hsiung-nu and the pacification of the
borderland. Clinging[84] to your rotting bamboo slips and
holding fast to your empty words, you never want to
recognize the necessity of coming to terms or the
imperative need of changing with the time. You hold to
no firm basis in your discussions, reminding one of
persons scratching their backs when their knees are
a-itching. Unbearable is the din of brawls you raise by
your railings at the Portals of the Commonweal. As if
your orchestrated vociferation will ever bring practical
result! Do you wish us to believe that this is what the
Englightened Monarch desired to hear?

(b) The Literati: All of us in submitting respectfully
our proposals have reached one conclusion though
following different channels.[85] Our proposals all point to
the necessity of re-establishing Form and Justice on the
pinnacle by relegating monetary gain, of reviving the
principles of old so as to rectify the mistakes of the
present day. There is not a single one of them which
does not spell a universal peace. We realize, of course,
that all of these proposals cannot be actually put into
practice, yet it would seem to us that at least some could
be effectuated indeed. On the other hand, you, having
control of affairs, prefer to remain in the darkness in
the face of the illustrious practices of conformity and

get your only cue from mercenary preoccupations; it
is through your obstructionism, censoriousness, your
manoeuvring and subterfuges that no decision has been
reached even until now. It is not that the Confucianists
can never achieve practical results, but that you,
high ministers of state, are too engrossed in achieving
practical profits.[86]

(c) The Lord Grand Secretary: Confounders of
truth you are, O Literati, with your flinty faces and
mushy hearts, corrupt to the core with your pompous
appearance and pliant insides! You plagiarize Chou
Kung in your dress with all these well-cuffed robes and
loose belts, plagiarize Chung Ni in your appearance with
all these low-crooked courtsies and mincing steps,[87]
plagiarize Shang and [88] in your oratory with all this
crooning and sententiousness. Discussing politics—you
pasquinade, O talents superior to Kuan (Chung) and
Yen (Ying)! belittling ministers and Chancellor in your
hearts, determined to slight the Myriad Chariots. Should
we intrust you with practical problems of administration
you will bring nothing but confusion worse confounded
and complete misgovernment. Indeed recommending
such men on the strength of their words is similar to
appraising a horse by its coat only. I have demonstrated
here sufficiently whereby most of you do not deserve the
recommendation you have received. The edict quotes:
`Greatly gratified by the scholars of Our domain,
We intend to search out diligently such of them who by
their great worth, literary knowledge and wide experience
can quickly be given official posts[89] .' But—fine talkers
are not necessarily possessors of moral excellence.
Preposterous? To talk is easy, 'tis difficult to act.[90] We
should prefer to take cognizance of the dumb ox and
discard the squeaking cart, for the former is to be prized
for accomplishing much while talking little. Just as the
great bell of Wu by wagging its own tongue smashed

itself, so Chu-fu Yen by wagging his caused his own
death. Master Chu-fu's owl screeches proved of no avail
against impending death just as the nightingale's night
songs do not prevail against the dawn's first light. 'Tis
not that we public officials are too engrossed in seeking
profit, but you rather are too well manacled to the yoke
of obsolete practices which drags you into idle talk.

(d) The Literati: T'ang and Wu (Wang) were
men who could talk as well as act, but you bureaucrats
can but talk, not act. If we have purloined the dress of
Chou Kung, you have stolen his position; if we are
manacled to the yoke of obsolete practices, you are
fettered to that of pelf and profit; if Chu-fu Yen may
have caused his own death by wagging his tongue, you
have penned yourselves in by wagging after profit. Now
we hold that none but Tsao Fu can so bring out the latent
talent of a noble steed that it will run for a myriad li;
if it were not for Shun who made him his minister, Yü
would never have seen employment though in wisdom he
was one in a myriad. Thus when a Chi Huan-tzŭ sits
in control of the administration such as Hui of Liu-hsia
suddenly vanish from sight,[91] but when a Confucius is
Minister of Justice, then, perversely enough, they blaze
out again. The power of selecting a noble steed rests
with a Po Lo, that it rises to the height of its possibilities
depends on a Tsao Fu. Let a Tsao Fu take the reins and
sorry jade or fine horse, all can be given the freedom of
the roads. In the age of a Chou Kung all scholars, be
they worthy or incapable, will be admitted to take part in
the discussion on the best form of government. It is the
best among drivers who will be found expert in teamstering
horses, and the worthiest among the ministers who
will be found expert in making use of the scholars.
Now-a-days they select men of unusual ability but let
benighted lackeys drive them. It is like yoking a noble
steed to a salt-wain and belaboring it, demanding speed.
This demonstrates well enough how worthies and Literati
are found to be mostly unworthy for recommendation.

(e) The Lord Grand Secretary: Faugh! You are,
my doctors, ne'er-do-wells[92] devoid of principle, never

practicing what you preach, the spirit of the letter in you
never second each other. A plague since days of old have
you been, like the wall-piercing burglars![93] Rightly
indeed was Confucius booted out by the Prince of Lu, and
found of no use by his age! How so? Well, they were
always malaprop with their doltish reactions to their age,
too much preoccupied with the flock of budding ideas in
their skulls. It fell to the king of Ch'in to do away by
fire with their lore instead of practicing it, and burying
their kind in Wei Chung instead of finding employment
for them. Ha! he gave them, indeed, no opportunity to
set their tongues adrumming in their mouths and to
arch their eyebrows premeditating their pro and contra
disquisitions on affairs of national scope.[94]

Chapter XXVIII.

ON NATIONAL ILLS.

(a) The Literati: No fault it is of the scholars
that the worthiest among them find no employment in
this state, but rather a shame to the authorities. A great
sage was Confucius, but none of the feudal lords saw fit
to use him. When, however, he had occupied a comparatively
insignificant position in Lu but for three
months,[95] he needed no orders to have things carried
out and no prohibitions to stop malpractices. His
beneficial influence was like unto the downpour of the
seasonal rain causing the efflorescence of all things. How
much more could he have done had he occupied an exalted
position at the central court of the Empire and had been
able to diffuse abroad the sonance of a sage Emperor's
virtue and the balsam of his instructions? But you,
Lord High Minister, for more than ten years you have
been occupying an eminent position holding the reins of
government over the Empire[96] ; yet you never have
diffused any achievement or moral excellence over the
world, but have been studiously belaboring the people.
While the people are impoverished and in dire distress

your own family has amassed a fortune estimated by
tens of thousands of gold. Of such conduct was the
Superior Man ashamed and such ones are criticized in
the poem `They are felling the hickories.'[97] In former
days when Shang Yang was Chancellor of Ch'in he
relegated etiquette and courtesy to the encouragement of
selfishness and greed, honored `head hunting'[98] [by his
soldiers] and concentrated on conquest and aggression.
He made no effort to propagate virtue among the people,
but imposed severe laws and statutes on the country so
that morals become more corrupt daily and the people
increasingly complained. So King Hui was forced to
boil and embrine his body in order to placate the Empire.
At that time he also had no opportunity left to make his
disquisitions on national affairs. Now you, our present
authorities, resent the fact that the Confucianists, poor
and insignificant, talk too much, but we[99] also have our
worries occasioned by the many annoyances you create
with your wealth and undue pre-eminence.

Woefully[100] the Lord Grand Secretary looked at the
Literati and said nothing.

(b) The Cancellarius[101] : Now, now! Why can you
not in discussing the administrative affairs of the nation
and in discoursing on the policy of the authorities,
expostulate with reason point by point, why wax vehement
to such an extent? The Lord Grand Secretary
considers it difficult to abolish the salt and iron monopoly
not for the sake of his private fortune but out of consideration
for the national expenditure and the needs of the

borderland. You also, Doctors, in contending reprovingly
against these state monopolies, are not working for
yourselves, but in earnest wish to return to the practices
of old and to entrench firmly altruism and justice. Both
sides to this debate have their preferences but as circumstances
change with the changing time, how could it be
possible to stick fast to the ancient methods and deny the
validity of modern ways? Furthermore, according to
the Hsiao Ya, in criticising others, one must offer
something constructive in exchange. If you, doctors,
could devise however, means to give peace to the country
or to subdue the distant lands, so that there would be no
calamity from raids and attacks at the frontier then all
the dues and taxes would be abolished for your sake, to
say nothing of the salt and iron monopoly and the equable
marketing system. According to your most esteemed
precepts, a Confucian should treasure a retiring and
complaisant disposition and treat all people in the proper
way. Now in your vigorous debates and accusations, you
have shown not the eloquence of Ch'ih and Ts'ê but
demonstrated only your crude and violent manners, unheard
of here. If the Lord Grand Secretary has gone
too far, you doctors have also done so. It is only just
that you should apologize to the Lord Grand Secretary.

(c) The Worthies and the Literati all arose from
their mats and said: Benighted provincials that we
are, who have seldom crossed the precincts of this great
court, we realize that our wild and uncouth speeches may
indeed find no favor here even unto offending the
authorities. Yet, so it seems to us, as a medicinal tonic
though bitter to the palate still is of great benefit to
the patient, so words of loyalty, though offensive to the
ear may also be found beneficial to mend one's morals.
A great blessing is to be able to hear straightforward
denial, it cheapens one to hear nothing but adulatory
praise. As swift winds are raging through the forest
so flattering words encompass the rich and powerful.
After hearing daily at this court controlling myriads of
li of territory nothing but servile aye-aye's you hear now
the straightforward nay-nay's of honest scholars. `Tis
indeed a great opportunity for you, Lord High Minister,
to receive a well-needed physic and the benefit of stone
and needle.[102]

(d) The Lord Grand Secretary's countenance
relaxed and with relief he turned his back[103] to the Literati
and said addressing the Worthies: Difficult indeed it
is to debate with men who, having seen little, offer
arguments as devious as the crooked lanes in which they
live. These Literati maintain a death grip upon vaporous
talk; there is no hope they will ever change their views.
We have already examined the precepts which held good
for antiquity, but in viewing the problems of the modern
world, we must rely on what our eyes have seen and what
our ears have heard. With the changing generations,
situations change. At the time of Emperors Wên and
Ching and at the beginning of the Chien Yüan period,
the people were simple and all followed the fundamental
occupation [agriculture], while the officers were honest
and self-esteeming. With abundance and superfluity
everywhere, the population swelled and families became
rich. Now, without any change in the administration or
in education, why is it that society is becoming increasingly
frivolous and morals are on the decline? The
officers have little sense of honesty, the people, little sense
of shame. In spite of the punishments imposed on the
wicked, evil-doings do not cease. As it is currently said,
the provincial Confucianists are inferior to the metropolitan
scholars. The Literati, all coming from Shantung,
seldom participate in important discussions. You, my
lords, have been at the capital long enough to desire that
administrative problems be intelligently analyzed and the
pro and con intelligently discussed. It is but natural.

(e) The Worthies: The navel of the world is Shantung,
the battlegound of distinguished scholars! When
Emperor Kao [Tsu] took his dragon flight and soared up
like a phoenix betwixt Sung and Ch'u, who but the
youth of Shantung, men like Hsiao, Ts'o, Fan, Li, Têng
and Kuan came to his assistance? Though it was indeed
an age different from antiquity yet in it were found men
that could be compared with none but Hung Yao and
T'ai T'ien. From among the western Ch'iang came Yü,
Wên was born among the I of the North, but in sagely
virtue they towered above the world; in ability equal to a
myriad men, they took upon their shoulders responsibilities

no mortal could support. There are men, on the
other hand, who come and go through the metropolis'
teeming squares no one knows how many times every
morn, yet finish their days as nothing more than stable
boys. We humbly grant that not being born or raised
in the capital, shaggy in talent and scant of wit, we are
not qualified to discuss affairs of great importance, but
we would like yet to report the tales told by the elders of
our village communities. It is not so long ago, it seems,
that the common people were clad in warm and
comfortable clothes with no ostentatiousness and were
perfectly satisfied in making use of crude and simple
materials and instruments. These clothes sufficed to
cover their bodies; these implements, to facilitate their
work. A nag sufficed to serve their steps, a wagon to
transport them. They had enough wine to make their
meetings merry, but none for dissipation; sufficient music
to set their hearts aright, but none for revelry. One
heard of no wild banquetting in the home, of no pleasure-seeking
excursions abroad. The itinerant went with
their packs and bales; the sedentary hoed and weeded.
Sparing in their needs, they abounded in wealth, cultivating
the fundamental, the people were prosperous. Paying
the last honors to their dead, they were sorrowful, never
with pomp; in nourishing their living, meet, never
extravagant. High officials were upright and not
extortionate, those in authority tolerant, never harsh, so
that the black-haired people found peace within
themselves and all the officers security in their positions.
Such was the state of affairs at the beginning of the
Chien Yüan era when culture was exalted, moral
excellence cultivated and the Empire was enjoying a well
earned peace. Then, evil ministers one after another set
their wily arts to work at the destruction of perfect
government, monopolizing mountains and seas abroad
and promoting various profiteering schemes at the court.
Yang K'o [-shêng] instituted the `Income Reports,' Chiang
Ch'ung regulated dress, the ta-fu Chang amended laws,
and Tu Chou took charge of prisons. There were rigidly
enforced regulations concerning penalties and redemptions
drawn in minute detail and in incalculable numbers.
The gangs of Hsia Lan carried out arbitrary arrests and
Wan Wên-shu's posses, summary executions. Murderous
officers-of-the-law sprang up in great number to the utter
dismay and confusion of honest people. At that time no
one among the populace felt his head secure on his
neck and even among the rich and influential none could
guarantee the safety of his family. Then the sage
Emperor awakened to the realization of what was going
on! Thereupon Ch'iang and his crowd suffered the
extreme penalty and the murderous brigands were
executed in order to pare off the resentment of those
condemned to death and stop the odium of the Empire.
Since then, everywhere among the settled people peace
has been restored, yet the damage that had been done
would take several generations to be repaired and the
wounds and sores of the nations are not yet healed to the
present day. Thus, there are still officials who practice
the same methods of the murderous brigands and
powerful stewards with hearts of revenous despoilers.
High ministers, having exclusive control of great power,
smash and break as they see fit, strong rascals form
cliques and abuse everyone, the rich and prominent
indulge in luxury and extravagance while the poor and
humble take to rapine and murder.

Women's handiwork, so hard in making, is easily
destroyed, carts and utensils, so difficult to complete, are
easily broken. A cart lasts less than two years, implements
are broken before the expiration of a twelvemonth.
But a cart costs one thousand weights of grain, a suit
of clothes, ten bushels. The common people use fancy
goblets, painted tables, tabourets and mats, and well
seamed and doubled garments. The serving wenches
sport colored silk dresses and satin sandals, the plebeian
has hulled rice and meat on his fare. Fashions in every
village, factions in every association, spirited races on
country highways and football games in beggars' alleys.
Too few are those who grasp the plough and clutch the
shuttle and personally engage in farming and weaving
and too numerous those who squeeze their waists and
studiously paint their faces with white powder and black
pencil. Paupers play the part of opulence and the
destitute boast extravagantly, with gay coats without
lining, silk breeches over hempcloth underwear, elaborate
funeral cortèges for the dead, while the living are not
properly fed, patrimonies are wasted to provide sumptuous
funerals, dowries by the cartloads for marrying
daughters. The rich strive to surpass one another, the
poor, to catch up with the rich, the former depleting
their substance, the latter weighing (borrowed) goods.
This is why the people become desperate and the need
increases year by year. Poor, they have little shame;

destitute, they have scarcely any honesty: this is the
explanation to corruption not diminishing in spite of the
punishment of wrong doers and the execution of the
wicked. Thus it is that these manifestations of terrific
nervousness in the country produce the ills of insufficiency
[described] before.[104]