University of Virginia Library

The founding of the Imperial University

Kung-sun Hung1 used his office to entrench Confucianism in the
government service. At his request (Tung Chung-shu had first made
this suggestion), Emperor Wu established the Imperial University
(q.v. in Glossary), which was destined to advance Confucianism more
than any other single institution.

As early as the Ch'in dynasty, the imperial court had maintained
Erudits, who were men prepared to give expert advice concerning
historical and learned matters. Emperor Wu ordered that fifty Disciples
should be established for these Erudits. They were exempted
from taxes and military service. In addition, officials ranking at two
thousand piculs were to send suitable persons to the capital along with
the officials who brought the yearly accounts from the commanderies
and kingdoms. These persons were sent to the Grand Master of Ceremonies,
who in turn sent them to study for a year with the Erudits or
their Disciples at the Imperial University. Thereupon the students
were examined. Those who showed themselves expert in one or more of
the Confucian disciplines (classics) were given the title of Literary Scholar
or Authority upon Ancient Matters, and might be promoted to positions
ranking at one or two hundred piculs or more or be given minor positions
in the offices of the Prefects of the Capital, the Grand Messenger, or of
the Commandery Administrators, etc. Less capable persons might be
made Gentlemen-of-the-Palace, in which capacity the Emperor might
become acquainted with them and appoint them to office. If there was
a person of an Unusual Degree of Abundant Talent, his name was reported
to the throne and he was given that title. From this time on,
says Szu-ma Ch'ien, most of the minor officials in the offices of the
ministers and grandees were Literary Scholars. Confucian learning
thus became the means whereby most of the lower positions in the
bureaucracy were filled, and it gradually permeated the government.

For the remainder of his reign, Emperor Wu showed no more than a
mild interest in Confucianism, except in matters of religious ceremonies
and literature. In 110 B.C., during the controversy over the ceremonies
for the sacrifices feng and shan, Emperor Wu broke with the Confucians,
dismissed fifty-odd, and formulated the ceremonies himself (cf. Mh III,
498; HS 25 A: 35b; 58: 12a, b, 13a). Legalism had come to stand for the
arbitrary authority of the government, as against the Confucian principle
that the ruler governs autocratically in accordance with moral principles
and for the benefit of the people. Emperor Wu was irked by restraint,
and deliberately weakened the power of his ministers and nobles, employing
commoners as his agents. In order to secure funds for his ambitious

military expeditions, he adopted the suggestion of Sang Hung-yang that
he should arbitrarily take the more profitable industries from the despised
merchants and make these industries government monopolies. Sang
Hung-yang thereupon established government monopolies in salt, iron,
and fermented liquors and had the government speculate in goods, buying
where prices were low and selling where prices were high. Such monopolies
had been characteristic of the Ch'in government and had been urged
by Legalist thinkers. The cruel exactingness of Emperor Wu's laws was
also modeled upon Ch'in Legalist practices. As Emperor Wu's military
plans succeeded more and more, he seems to have likened himself to
the earlier great conquerer, the First Emperor of the Ch'in dynasty,
and he followed that Emperor's footsteps by making many and extensive
tours about his empire. In his interest in magical practises, supernatural
beings, and immortality (which was typically Taoist), Emperor
Wu likewise imitated the First Emperor. In building great palaces
and other edifices—many of which were discontinued by later emperors
under Confucian influence, for the sake of economy—Emperor Wu also
followed the example of the First Emperor. There was thus in Emperor
Wu's government an extremely strong element of the very Legalist
influence which he had ordered excluded.

The reign of Emperor Wu hence marks both the entrenchment of
Confucianism and also the actual reintroduction of many Legalist practises
into the imperial government. It was perhaps the most brilliant
reign in the period. In no other reign was there so much activity, yet
much that Emperor Wu did had to be undone in order that the dynasty
might retain popular approval. Because of his military conquests,
Emperor Wu's actions came later to have upon the Chinese an influence
disproportionate to his deserts.