 | THE HISTORY OF THE FORMER HAN DYNASTY The history of the former Han dynasty |  |
The Emperor's gradual adherence to and advancement of Confucianism
The reign of Emperor Wu marks an important step in the progressive
victory of Confucianism over its rivals. According to Pan Ku's account
of the rise of Confucian influence (HS ch. 88, taken from SC ch. 121),
although Emperor Wen had at times elevated Confucians, he was more
and legalist school of circumstances and names). Emperor Ching had
not appointed any Confucian scholars as such to office. At the beginning
of Emperor Wu's reign, in 141 B.C., it was decreed that all those
adhering to the Legalist philosophy should be dismissed from government
posts. The memorial of Lieutenant Chancellor Wei Wan
to that effect, which was enacted by Emperor Wu, specifically requests
that all persons who had become expert in the philosophies of Shen
Pu-hai, Shang Yang, Han Fei, Su Ch'in, and Chang Yi should be dismissed
(6: 1b). The first three of these philosophers belonged to the
Legalist school; the latter two, to the Diplomatist (Tsung-heng) School.
The intention of this edict was however, as Pan Ku says (6: 39a), to
eliminate non-Confucians from the government service. Previous to
this time there had been Erudits at the imperial court for the various
non-Confucian philosophies; indeed, in the time of Emperor Wen,
possibly the only imperial Confucian Erudit was Chia Yi (36: 32b).
Upon the illness of the Grand Empress Dowager née Tou in 136, special
Erudits were appointed for each of the Five Classics, and it seems that
henceforth there were only Confucian Erudits at the imperial court;
at least we do not hear of any others. There had been and continued to
be Erudits at some kingly courts who specialized in the various Confucian
classics, and some vassal kings, particularly Liu An, King of Huai-an,
continued to support non-Confucians.
At the time that the edict banning Legalists was enacted, Emperor
Wu was under the influence of a strongly Confucian clique, headed by
an uncle and a cousin, T'ien Fen and Tou Ying. They would undoubtedly
have liked also to dismiss Taoists, but did not dare to do so
because of the influence wielded by Emperor Wu's paternal grandmother,
the Grand Empress Dowager née Tou, who was an ardent
Taoist. Other Taoists continued to hold positions at the court; Chi
Yen had been an Outrider to Emperor Wu while the latter was Heir-apparent,
and, through his frank criticism, continued to inspire the
Emperor with respect and even fear (50: 9a). Szu-ma T'an was likewise
a convinced Taoist. A few members of the Taoist school thus continued
in the government service. The Mohist school seems to have exercised
little if any influence, for it is not referred to as having any adherents,
although it is mentioned by Szu-ma T'an in his survey and comparison
of the six philosophical schools (SC, 130: 7-14; HS 62: 4b-8a; trans. in
L. C. Porter, Aids to the Study of Chinese Philosophy, pp. 51-53). The
eventual victory of Confucianism was achieved through the operation
of the Imperial University and the examination system, which latter
could easily exclude those holding a disapproved philosophy.
Emperor Wu did not at first have an altogether happy experience
with Confucianism. His personal adherence to it remained mostly
nominal, except for its interpretation that the emperor should be an
autocrat, and he did not openly espouse any other philosophy. His
decree against non-Confucian philosophies seems to have been enacted
in a burst of youthful enthusiasm. He sometimes encouraged the advancement
of Confucians and never openly encouraged non-Confucian
philosophies, yet he actually put many legalist practises into effect.
The Confucian clique was temporarily strong at Court under the
leadership of Tou Ying. Emperor Wu had soon dismissed the incompetent
Wei Wan and appointed Tou Ying as his Lieutenant Chancellor.
Tou Ying was widely known for his strong character, his pride, his ability,
and his strong Confucian leanings. He brought into the important court
positions a group of ardent Confucians and proceeded to enact Confucian
ideals into laws, establishing regulations for mourning ceremonies,
proposing to establish a Ming-t'ang, etc. To combat the anti-Confucian
clique at the court, the Confucians revived the ideal that rulers should
teach their people to live moral lives. The marquises were considered
to have states; consequently Tou Ying enacted that they should all go
to their states to guide their people. But they had almost all established
themselves at the imperial capital, Ch'ang-an, where civilization and
luxury were centered, and did not want to leave this comfortable place.
In 179, Emperor Wen had futilely ordered them to go to their states;
in 143, Emperor Ching had rescinded that order. Most of the imperial
relatives were marquises and many of the marquises had married imperial
princesses; hence, when they were ordered to leave the capital, they
took their cause to the Grand Empress Dowager née Tou. In order to
check her influence, the Confucian clique petitioned the Emperor to
order that public business should not be brought to the attention of an
Empress Dowager. When she heard of this move, the Grand Empress
Dowager was furious. Tou Ying and his clique were dismissed; the
Grandee Secretary, who had presented the memorial, was executed.
Thereafter Tou Ying was powerless.
After this misadventure, Emperor Wu gradually took over in person
the direction of the government. Subsequent to the death of the
Grand Empress Dowager née Tou in 135, T'ien Fen became Lieutenant
Chancellor. He degraded those who held non-Confucian techings,
especially Taoists and those who stressed penological terms, and advanced
several hundred Confucians.
Under Emperor Wu the literary and historical treasures of China,
particularly the Classics, were especially studied and expounded by the
Confucians and a definite canon was formed. Confucius was himself a
man and was greatly interested in literature. His poems and
edicts show genuine literary ability. He was consequently attracted to
Confucianism because of its literary and historical scholarship. He was
the first ruler to select for his highest official a man who was primarily an
oustanding scholar.
This person was Kung-sun Hung1, who was an authority upon the
interpretation of the Spring and Autumn. In 141, Kung-sun Hung1 had
been recommended to the throne for government service and had been
made an envoy to the Huns. On his return from his mission, his report
did not please the Emperor, who became angry and dismissed him on
account of illness. Ten years later, after the death of the Grand Empress
Dowager née Tou, Kung-sun Hung1 was again recommended to the
imperial court, because of his fame as a scholar. Emperor Wu was struck
by the literary quality and nature of Kung-sun Hung1's written answers
to the questions that the Emperor had put to those who were recommended,
and summoned him to an audience. The Emperor found that
Kung-sun Hung1 was not a stiff-necked Confucian, sure that he was right,
but a man who, when asked about his ability in office, replied meekly that
he could learn. So Kung-sun Hung1 was made an Erudit and sent to
inspect the present Yünnan, which Emperor Wu was planning to conquer.
His report again disagreed with Emperor Wu's plans, but Kung-sun
Hung1 had learned to be tactful, and the Emperor kept him at court, for it
was not wise to dismiss a scholar who had the respect of educated people.
At meetings for discussing important matters, Kung-sun Hung1, in putting
forward his ideas, tactfully said that he was merely presenting
his views so that the sovereign could have a variety of opinions
from which to choose. That pleased Emperor Wu, who was glad to
prove his open-mindedness by having at court someone who disagreed
with him. This sort of conduct was however not approved by the
stricter Confucians; Tung Chung-shu called Kung-sun Hung1 a flatterer.
Kung-sun Hung1 proved to be admirable in personal conduct, able in
disputation, capable in legal matters, and an ornament to scholarship,
so he was advanced in office and in 124 was made Lieutenant Chancellor.
He died three years later. The appointment of Kung-sun Hung1 does
not therefore mean more than a very moderate attachment to Confucianism
on the part of Emperor Wu.
All the previous Lieutenant Chancellors had been marquises; Kung-sun
Hung1 was only a commoner, so Emperor Wu enfeoffed him as a
marquis. Thereafter it became the practise for the emperor to ennoble
all Lieutenant Chancellors as marquises on the day of their appointment
to this office, if they were not already full marquises.
| THE HISTORY OF THE FORMER HAN DYNASTY The history of the former Han dynasty | |