University of Virginia Library

5. CHAP. V.
Of the parts in an Oration.

When by the former directions you have put the invented matter, in to a certain order; then consider of how many parts your Oration shall consist. Tully tells us that an Oration ought generally to consists of these five parts.

1. Exordium.
2. Proposition.
3. Narration.
4. Confirmation.
5. Peroration.

As for Confutation it is comprised in Confirmation. But all these parts, are not alwaies necessary; for the ingenious Orator may as he shall see it convenient, sometimes omit the Narration, sometimes the Exordium, sometimes the Peroration or Conclusion, yea & the Confirmation is many times scarce discernible; as when the things propounded

are certain, there is more need of ornament than proof , as in Gratulatory Orations and the like. As for the placing of these parts, their natural order is that which we have named them I. The Exordium, 2. The Proposition, 3. The Narration, if it be not thought fit to omit it. 4. The Confirmation; and lastly the Peroration.

Of each of these I will here set down some few directions; and first for Exordiums.

An Exordium is as it were the door of the Oration, in which the Oratour doth prepare the minds of the Auditors for that which is to follow : and this is commonly done by one of these three waies; by bespeaking their favour; by making them docible; or by begging their attention. The favour of the Auditorsis bespoke either from the person of the Oratour, from the persons of the Auditors, from the persons of the Adversaries, or from the subject matter of the discourse. The Orator may bespeake the favour of the Auditors, in respect of himself, if his getsture and deportment be suitable unto theirs that are his Auditors, and express himself modestly. And in respect of the Auditors, if he shew how well they have deserved

of the Common wealth, of him; and other men. And in respect of the Adversaries, if he modestly shew wherein they are faulty and render them to the Auditors inaxcusable. And lastly in respect of the matter in hand, if he say, that it is some excellent, necessary and profitable thing.

Secondly, the Orator may be said make the Auditors docible, if he clear explain the thing of which he is to speake, and how he purposeth to enlarge upon it.

Thirdly, the Attention will be quickned if he saith, that he intends to speak of some great and wonderfull thing, and some thing that is delightful, necessary, and very much concerns his Auditors , &c.

An Exordium may be said to be faulty, or not so commendable. First, if it be vulgar or common, that is, such as may be used in many if not in all cases. Secondly, if it be long and tedious, not proportionable to the length of the Oration. Thirdly, if it consist of some different matter, not suitable to the other parts of the Oration. Fourthly if it effect not that which is required or expected.

And that is said to be a good Exordium, which is neate and elegant, fit for the purpose; making the Auditor docible and well affected, and from which the access

to the proposition is not violent and forced, but easie and agreable. Though Tully doth very much insist on this, that all Exordiums should be such, as will afford an easie and proper access unto the proposition; yet practice which is the best master, and a diligent observing, what manner of Exordiums others make to their Orations, will afford the best directions; but yet Rhetoricians are wont to prescribe some certain formes according to which, beginners may exercise themselves in framing their Exordiums aright: the chiefest of them are these following.

They first way.

First, propound some proposition or protasis, by which an easie access may be made to the proposed matter. Secondly, Add some Reason or Confirmation, to which if you will some refutation may be annexed, for he that confirmeth truths, hath also the liberty to refute falshoods. Thirdly, Add some confirmation of the reason. Fourthly, make some particular inference or conclusion, to which some reason may be also added, and thence an access to the proposition.

Example.

Let the propostion be this. I will (before you my Auditors) defend my good name which wicked men have hurt. To this you may make your entrance thus. There is nothing which Malice doth not violate, nothing which it will not gnaw with the teeth of slander, or make nauseous with the black venome of contumelious sarcasmes. To this base work it hath not a little advantage by the ill nature of this age wherein we live, in which men are so unmanly, as not only to contemn the works of vertue, but even to oppress what ever is done by the rules of honesty; if otherwise they cannot, they will at least do it with a mist of scurrilous and scoffing language. And shall not we at last, by our indulgence to vice so much increase the family of Momus, as that in the end, we shall all be ashamed of honesty: if we can even yet tamely behold and suffer the most wicked crime to be committed with applause and led in triumph, and virtues to be condemned to banishment, nay to flouts and hatred. I have been unwilling to be the first raker in this kennell, but the storm which hath again and again beat upon my head with renewed waves, hath quite wearied my patience,

and I doubt that I shall wrong good men in any longer sparing the bad. For now they do not invade my fortunes, which in it selfe were a miserable thing, they do not raze my walls and [unclear] which were mischevious enough, they do not gape after my life and safety, which were more than inhumane; but having set upon my good name, my honour and reputation, which is to a good man far dearer than his life, they strive to overwhelm this with whole burthens of reproaches. Therefore that this audaciousness of wicked fellowes, may be by you most prudent Auditors at once suppressed, be courteous to me this day, and candidly hear what I have to say for my self.

The second way.

First understand the proposition well, of which you intend to speake, then draw from thence some general reason, which may contain the most material thing in the propostion; then amplifie, and adorn this reafon, with Sentences, Examples, Similitudes, &c. then bring in the proposition it self, as some particular assumption of that general discourse.

For Example, suppose you were to make an Exordium to a funerall Oration, upon the death of some noble man, according to these directions, you might perform it in this manner.

"This is a lesson so well known to all that all must die, that he would surely be thought to be beside himself that should but think himself immortal. For men alas! like running waters may not alwaies continue in one place: one day thrusts out another, one yeare devoureth another, and one wave overwhelmeth another: And like as earthen vessels are quickly broken and easily shivered into many pieces; so are our bodies soon dissolved, and quickly reduced to earth from whence we were taken; we may be killed with too much joy, we may be opressed with too much sorrow, we may die praying and fall down laughing; we maybe throttled with a hair, or strangled with a flie. And thus on a sudden we are and we are not; alive to day and dead to morrow, and every hour we hasten nearer and nearer our end. There needs no other or farther testimony to prove the assertion, than that the many instances of mortality

which so daily and so hourly happen that it is hard to turn our eyes from them; yea even this sad occasion of our present meeting shews us, that whatsoever difference there is or may be in our way of living, in this there is none, in this we are equall, the certain uncertainty of our dying: If either wealth or honour, if either Friends, or Physick could vanquish death, or prevent the grave, we had not met this day to lament the death of this Honourable person; we had not seen this spectacle of mortality, but death alas respects no persons, will have no denyal unto his summons, whether it be in the evening of our dayes, when our hoary haires may seem to proclaim us as fit for his stroak, as the corn is for the sickle, when white for the Harvest; or whether he come in the morning of our life, when our bones are full of marrow and our bloud runs briskly in our veines, which is his case whose funerall obsequies we are now to perform. As a green Apple is sometimes rudely pulled from off that tree on which it grew, so was this branch cut down, before he had lived one half of the age of man. He was indeed born of noble and unspotted Parents, but as if that wisedome were not tied to years, his discretion did adorn his birth more, than his birth him, &c."

The third way.

First, Propound some opinion contrary to your own, either with or without a reason for it. Then Secondly, Deliver your own opinion, with a reason or two, or without any reason also. Thirdly, Deliver the contrary reason, if it shall be necessary, and so come to your proposition; that is, propound something in your preceding words, from whence you may inferre your proposition ether plainly, or obscurely. Let the proposition, for example, be: Wisdome is most suiteable to Noble men : That you may deduce this, first lay down the contrary opinion, namely, There are many think that Wisdom becometh none but common people. The Reason of this contrary opinon. Because Noble men are born for the Warrs, not for the Schools, and have their commendations from their estates. Your own proper opinion: This is an evill opinion and to be confuted. The Reason and answer to this contrary

opinion. Because it is mischievous to the world. Access to your proposition. I will therefore shew that Wisdom is most proper for a Noble man.

The Topicks or heads from whence matter for an Exordium may best be had, the most famous Rhetoricians have reduced unto these.

First, An enumeration of causes, when the Oratour shewes the causes which moved him to speak as if he were to commend some Noble person; he might begin his Exordium thus: You need not wonder that I should speak, in the commendation of this worthy person; these reasons have induced me (and here lay down the reafons ) Therefore I shall speake, &c.

Secondly, The Adjuncts of the Person, either of the Orator himself, or of the Auditor, or of him of whom you are to speak:

Example of the first.

If you were to praise some body, you might thus begin. To express the just praises of this person, there should be indeed a more skilful Orator than my selfe, but yet I thought my selfe obliged thereto, not only for my affection to him, but also to expresse my gratitude, for the many favours which I have received from him.

Example of the second.

Although my weakness might command me silence, yet courteous Auditors, the wonted candor which you have shewed to others doth both invite and encourage me to speak; Therefore &c.

Example of the third.

Though the things so be commended in this person, are so many and so great, that they would require a Demosthenes or a Tully to set forth his worth; yet I will endeavour, &c.

Thirdly, The Adjuncts of place. Example; If I had considered the dignity of this place, I should not have undertaken, to speak unto you this day (and here shew the Reasons) but I considered more your humanity, and the necessity of the thing, and therefore. &c.

Fourthly, The Adjuncts of Time; as thus: The time requires, that I should speak this day unto you, (here shew the reasons.)

Fiftly, The Adjunct of person, time, manner and place together.

Sixthly, The opinions and affections of men, for men do either rejoyce, or are sad, or angry, &c. And according to these or the like passions or affections you may find matter for an Exordium.

Seventhly, Some passions with which the Oratour himself may be affected, as anger or grief or admiration, or gratitude, &c.

Eighthly, The difficulty of the thing of which you are to speake.

Ninthly, Contradiction or Accusation: Example; if you would contradict another, you may say; I like not this mans opinion, because, &c. and here shew the reasons. If you would accuse another you may say: It is not for ill will to you or any mind to do mischief which hath perswaded me to accuse you, but the love I have to the common, for Justice sake, and for necessity.

Tenthly, Preterition; as thus: I could speak of many things, but because I will not tire you with them, I will only mention one or two.

Eleventhly, You may find matter for an Exordium, from what hath either been said or done before; as if you were to accuse some person, you may say: This is not the first time that this person hath been thus accused, found guilty, and yet born with, but now it cannot be sure thought fit, that he should be born with any longer.

Twelvthly, Comparing and opposing opinions and persons: as suppose you were to

speak for peace; you migh say: Many are for War and shedding of blood; But I believe that we can have no greater blessing than the blessing of Peace. Or if you would compare persons, you may do it thus: Some worthy and learned men have heretofore spoken of this subject, with whom I am in no wise to be compared; but because the matter concernes the Common wealth, I also will speake freely, &c. This for Exordiums.

The second part of an oration is the Proposition. And the Proposition is that part of the Oration in which the Orator doth briefly deliver the summe of the whole matter of which he intends to speak, and bespeaks the hearers attention if need be. Sometimes it doth immediately follow the Exordium; sometimes it follows the Narration; in what place soever it be put, it must be short and clear, and fit for Confirmation.

And here it is to be observed first, that a Proposition may de delivered two waies.

First, Openly, when the Orator doth plainly declare the matter of which he meanes to speak.

Secondly, Darkly, when the matter of his Oration is sufficiently known before hand, or may easily be discerned from the content, or when the thing to be proved is not laid

down as a distinct part from the Exordium, but is insinuated as a member thereof annexed, and further to be proved afterwards.

Secondly, it is to be observed, that when a proposition is longer than usual, it ought to be divided into certain parts, that so the Orator may the more fully explain the matter, and the Auditor the better remember it.

Narration is another part of an Oration, by which a relation is made of the matter or thing done. And this is either a distinct part of the oration, and then for the most part it doth immediately follow the Exordium, that the Proposition with the Confirmation thereof may be collected from it. Or else it is joyned with the Confirmation, which is to be done in such Orations which assume the explanation of the thing done to prove the matter in hand; for example: if you were to prove that some valiant person, had been a Souldier in some warre; it is necessary that you should declare, what the particular actions were, in which he shewed his valour.

But now in that Narration which is made a distinct part of the Oration, the thing done must be briefly and simply declared without any exaggeration: and in such a

Narration as makes way for confirmation the things done may be illustrated, with great neatness of language with, sentences and figures; & some discourses may be made concerning the worthiness of the action, with some amplification from similitudes and comparisons: In a word, where ever you make a Protasis from any History or Fable, and afterwards make an application thereof, there you must make your Narration, and this may be in any part of the 0ration, even in the Exordium: but these kinds of Narrations are most usefull in such Orations as are in commendation or discommendation of persons, in which it is necessary to declare their vertues or their vices.

That your Narration may be such as it ought, you must observe,

First, that the known matter must be briefely declared; the matter unknown more largely.

Secondly, that there be in it some apt sentenccs, and that it express the manners of men,as their pride, covetousness, and the like; and to this purpose an Hypotyposis, or prosopopœa and such like figures are usefull, to wit, when some persons are introduced in their melancholy or studious

mood, or speaking something which doth declare and manifest what their natural inclinations are.

Thirdly, that it be plain & clear. And that it maybe so, you must avoid all circumlocutions, the reckoning up of a multitude of things, and making large Catalogues of persons, with frequent and long perentheses and useless digressions.

Fourthly, that it be probable. And that it may be so, you must have a care, that the circumstances of time, manners, place and person be all suteable; besides some testimonies may be briefly named, unless the person from whom the Narration is made be well known, and of good credit. But if any thing be mentioned, not altogether probable, some admonishment must be made thereof, either by adding the cause, as a Covetous man throwes away his wealth because he saw his life in danger; or, a Fox despiseth grapes, because they are out of his reach, Or by confessing the improbability, if no defence can otherwise be made, and that either plainly thus; It is wonderfull if we may believe the Poets: or with some compensation thus; It is strang, but yet it is true: or by naming some witnesses thus; I know not the reason, but this it is affirmed by very sober

men. Or by desiring the Auditors that they would at present admit the thing, which afterwards you will prove more fully.

Fiftly, that all the things declared, may ctend to the end propounded and that onfirmation may easily follow thereupon. Moreover in declaring any thing let the Orator chiefly observe, the persons, matter, time, place, manner, and cause, which do almost happen in all cases; but yet all these circumstances are not alwayes necessary to be expressed, but as many of them only, as the Oratour in his discretion shall think fit.

The Fourth part of an Oration is Confirmation; and Confirmation is as it were the very heart and soul by which an Oration may be chiefly said to live: or it is the chief part of an Oration in which the arguments are produced by which we would prove our proposition, & refute or answer the contrary opinion of our adversary, if need require. What is necessary in this behalf, may be collected from what hath been already said. Seeing that Confirmation doth consist of the arguments that are invented, and the right disposition of them, both which have been fully enough declared before. Thus much only I will adde, that the Orator in Confirmation may do well to remember,

First, to name those Arguments in the beginning of his Confirmation, and also in the conclusion which carry with them the greatest weight, and those of least concernment in the midst. Secondly, to take care, that his Oration may still gather strength; and this will be done, if the following words be still more significant than the former, and that the affections be most moved in the very close thereof. Thirdly, let him take care, that all his Arguments doe fully prove his proposition. Fourthly, that he urge not his arguments in one and the same manner and forme, but that he use variety of figures, and propound them sometimes by way of Syllogism, sometimes in an Enthymem, sometimes ommitting the Major, sometimes the Conclusion, as he thinks it most convenient. Fiftly, let him find out the Crinomenon, use fit Transitions Sentences, Digressions and Amplifications. And the Crinomenon is that proposition in the Argumentation, whether General or Particular, in which the whole strength doth lie, and that being proved, the whole matter seemeth to be proved also: this therefore the Orator must especially declare and confirme.

Here then observe, 1. That the Crinomenon

is sometimes the same with the proposition of the whole Oration; and then the greater varietie of arguments may be sound to prove the proposition. For Example, let the proposition be this; I will shew you that a King ought to love his subjects and the Common wealth. The first argument is; Because the head ought to love the members; The King is the head, the subjects are the members. Therefore &c. The second Argument is; Every one ought to love his patrimony. The common wealth is the Kings patrimony: Therefore &c. Here you see that severall arguments may be brought to confirm the proposition, because the Crinomenon is the same with the general proposition of the Oration.

Note 2. That the Crinomenon is sometimes different from the Generall proposition in the Oration, and then there is but one principal argument in the whole Oration, which we must endeavour to confirme and amplifye. Moreover this Crinomenon may be discovered, if you put your principal Arguments into a true Syllogisticall form; for the Minor in the syllogism is sometimes the Crinomenon, as in the first argument of the Oration, which Tully made for Milo. He that is a Traitor deserves to be kill'd. Claudius was

a Traitor: Therefore; where the Major: is certainly true, the Minor only is to be proved; this therefore Tully endeavours to do throughout that whole Oration.

Sometimes the Major is the Crinomenon, as Tully in his Oration for Sextus Roscius. No son would kill his father, but for some great cause; Sextus Roscius is a son: Therefore In this Syllogism the Minor is undoubtedly true, and therefore the Major only is to be proved, for in that is the whole force. Sometimes the Crinomenon is in the Major and Minor both. For example, He killed Roscius that was advantaged by his death : but the death of Roscius was advantagious to Capiton; Therefore. Here the Major and the Minor are both to be proved. In the reading therefore, and in the composing of Orations, the Crinomenon must be regarded. But when the General proposition hath several parts, there are several Crinomenons to be regarded.

2. As for Transtions, it is by them that the arguments for confirmation have a dependance on one another, yea and the several parts of the Oration also. And a Transition is a kind of speech by which we express what hath been said in few words, and briefly shew what. yet remaineth to be spoken. It is either perfect or imperfect. That

is a perfect Transition which repeats the things spoken, and infers the things that are to be said: as if you should say; Enough hath been said concerning the necessity of Arms; let let us now see what advantage may come from them. An imperfect Transition is when we do not revoke the things that are spoken, but only proceed to the things that are to be spoken, with these or the like expressions. But now, furthermore, adde to this, and such like. And note also that one argument doth then properly follow another, when in the end of one argument, such a sence thereof is given, as will easily open a way of speaking and arguing further.

3. Sometimes the Orator may declare the argument by way of Sentence, and this may be twofold, plain or obscure.

A plain Sentence is the declaration of the truth in few words. Or, it is an universal speech concerning the good that is to be done, and the evil that is to be eschewed; concerning God, religion, providence, and other things belonging to the life and manners of men. For example;

An obscure sentence is a particular speech deducted from a general, the circumstances of persons, time and place being added thereunto; as thus; It cannot be, O Peter, that thou shouldest be always wise.

These Occult sentences are to be very frequently used in any part of an Oration, for they do adorn it much, and are very taking with the Auditors: Plain sentences may be also used, but these do best become old men and such as have experience; and are chiefly to be used in grave matters.

4. Digressions are oft times and very gracefully used in Confirmation: in which something is touched upon, which seemeth little to the purpose, but yet doth serve to illustrate the matter in hand. And this may be done either briefly, and then there needeth no transition; or else more largely, and then the Orator must recall himself; as from a long and a by-path to his present purpose.

The Orator may use Digressions, when he is to speak of universal and common things, as, of vices, virtues, slavery, liberty, life, death and such like.

As suppose one were to prove, that it were not fit to thrust a learned man out of a City, he might make his digression on the praise of learning, shewing as well the necessity

as the profit of it. Expositions of things done and descriptions of places, persons, customs and such like, may be handsomely used in digressions.

5. Amplification is a speech, which doth augment that, which being nakedly related would seem small and trivial, by describing of it by adjuncts and circumstances. It is twofold, of words and things.

Amplification of words, is that by which the matter is augmented by the choice of words, and manner of speech. And a speech may be augmented from one word several ways.

1. By the addition of fit Epithites ; thus Tully doth amplifie and enlarge this one word War saying, that it is an horrible and a villainous war, and full of all wickedness.

2. By the use of suteable Adverbs; as, you may justly and deservedly praise him.

3. By definition or discription; as, the hands of wicked and pernicious men, instead of murtherers.

4. By Notation; as, the golden mouthed Chrisostom.

5. Synonomies, when many expressions are used which carry the same sence; as, this conjunction of minds, this conspiring together in one, this most pleasant society of life,

in stead of friendship.

6. By Paraphrase; as, this saying of the common people he minded us of a long time since, in stead of this, it is a common saying; or thus, it was that season of the year when the earth puts on her most gorgeous apparel to entertain the sun, for, it was in the spring.

7. By Enumeration of parts, when the parts are expressed instead of the whole; as, instead of saying, this valley is set forth with all the imbellishments that low ground is capable of, one may say: The rich fields of corn and green meadows lie in several divisions inter-checkered like great beds of flowers, and fresh glass pots in a large garden. The corn-fields look as if the roots which were hid in them complained, that by mistake of their own strength, through a great desire of being fruitful, they had sent forth more stalks than they could well support, and the overladen ears encreased that oppression; the sweet grass grew up so thick in the meadows, that it seemed to be straightened for want of room, and yet crouded closer to make way for those fragrant flowers of all sorts which grew up with it; and these mingling their various colours as they best fitted the several greens which they found there, made a shew like a rich carpet, where grass was the ground, rarely made up with beautiful Embroideries of flowerwork.

8. By the commemoration of causes, or the antecedents and consequents of things, as: Thou hast done what thou canst to destroy this city with the sword, and with arms and with the terror of an army, and the wickedness of Consuls, and by besieging the most fortified Temples, by prepossessing the Judges, by overawing the Courts of Judicature, at home and abroad.

Amplification of things is, when the matter it self is encreased and confirmed with grave sentences: yet it is formed indifferently from the same places from whence the arguments are taken, seeing there are many definitions or descriptions of one and the same thing: as history is the witness of times, the light of truth, the memory of fashions, the messenger of antiquity, the mistress of behaviour.

2. When many consequences are reckoned up; i. e. those things which may presently or hereafter follow: as if the proposition were; Many mischiefs may follow for want of due consideration.

This may be amplified in this manner. What are the consequences of inconsideration? By this means the opportunity of advancement is neglected, the present possession of goods is utterly lost, together with our own lives and the common

safety of all.

3. When many causes are reckoned up: as if the proposition were this; Never do that of which you shall have cause to repent you afterwards. Which may be amplified in this manner.

When you do that which is to be lamented, you act inconsiderately, than which there is nothing more foolish: you are overcome with passion, than which there is nothing more imprudent: you foresee not what may follow, than which there is nothing more dangerous: you restrain not your unruly lusts, than which there is nothing more indecent.

4. When many effects are reckoned up; as, let the proposition be, Antonius did the Romans many mischiefs. Which may be thus Amplified. The Romans bewail the loss of three armies, which Antonius destroyed. They stand in need of wise men, and those Antonius hath deprived them of. Their Authority and reputation is much weakened and impaired, and that they may thank Antonius for.

5. When many similitudes are brought: for example sake, let this be the proposition.

If small falts be not corrected, they will hardly be mended when they are greater. Which you may amplifie in this manner: Extinguish those sparks of wickedness, unless you purpose to

be consumed; stop up those fountains, unless you mean to be overflowed with those violent waters; take Physick in time, if you fear the approach of some mortal disease. For as fire which is kindled by small embers, doth many times destroy whole Cities: as a River is by the droppings of small springs increased to such a heap of waters as overfloweth the whole land: as light distempers do occasion great diseases, and sweep away whole families: so the vices of young men, unless they be timely suppressed, will be more and more rooted in them, until they have bereft their minds of all vertue and common honesty.

Confutation is a part or kind of Confirmation, in which we answer all objections: it doth either proceed or follow confirmation, or may be here and there used in all the parts of the Oration. And these objections may be either all answered together, or those first, which are first made, and then the latter; or those first which are most material, and the rest may fall of themselves; or the weakest first, that they being avoided, the strongest arguments may be somewhat weakned. And the manner of doing this, is by shewing, that the Adversaries allegation is either false, impossible, uncertain, or impertinent, and the like: and because this part of an Oration is full of heat, and sometimes

of fury, it doth admit of Dialogisms or conferences, Ironies, illusions, interrogations, execrations, and other like vehement figures and affections.

These objections are sometimes rejected with great scorn, sometimes eluded not so much by strength of argument, as by voice and gesture.

The Adversary is sometimes vexed with chiding; sometimes pressed with Questions, and the dint of all his arguments sometimes blunted with the like objections: sometimes there is no answer given to that which he requireth of us; sometimes the answer is not given presently, but first suspended for a long time.

Peroration or Conclusion is the last part of an Oration, in which the Orator should very much endeavour to set an edge in the minds of his Auditors, and incline them to be of his side; and here he should therefore use such figures, as are most proper to move the affections; it doth chieflly consist of two parts, Enumeration and Amplification.

Enumeration is required, that the chief arguments more largely opened in the former discourse may be briefly and clearly repeated in a new form of words. Amplification

desires, that this repetition may made, by some serious expressions, adorned with sentences and figures. This part of the Oration ought therefore to be more exactly composed; because by this the Orator is commonly the more or less valued; for this the Auditor do best remember, and from hence do pass their judgments of us.