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II
In certain long books (such as A Hundreth) with early and later sections printed in the same font, a sequence of font transformations can establish the relative positions of the sections in the shop schedule as defined by the respective states of the font. Bynneman-Y1 appears in a fairly large number of books in 1572-73 so that it is possible to plot the progressive contamination of the font over a period of several months. The necessary condition for transformation by fouling is met by Bynneman's simultaneous use of his three pica roman fonts during the proximate period in A Hundreth and other books. Moreover, the fonts frequently alternate within a book, a situation which invites fouling. Additionally, replenishment with new wrong-face letters produces a new state of the font. The fact that Bynneman-Y1 appears in A Hundreth as an emphasis font presents the major methodological problem since the resulting typographical sample is quite small.[17] As a general rule, the size of the typographical sample in a target book is more or less irrelevant as long as the evidence of the transformation state appears. A large sample of a font is needed only for establishing the proportions of the normal vs. foulcase letters and the expected ratio of appearances in textual units such as the page or gathering.[18] Once that probability is established, the necessary size of a sample diminishes to the level at which foul-case letters begin to appear,
A font transformation in itself proves nothing about the temporal component of production unless it can be located in the shop's schedule. A stage of fouling can happen almost instantaneously in relative terms: the compositor requires only a few reaches to the wrong-font case to effect the transformation. Hence, no assumptions can be made about the amount of time required for a transformation. As will be seen below, radical transformations to a font can occur during the setting of a single page. The discovery of a transformation in progress in a given book establishes a definite temporal reference point in the shop's schedule but presents a problem of interpretation regarding the amount of time that elapsed before the appearance of the newly transformed font in the next book. In the absence of contrary evidence, it seems reasonable to assume that the printing of a short book in which a transformation occurred proceeded uninterrupted to its end. However, it is possible that a later, short book could have interrupted the printing of a long book with a large number of sheets following the transformation sheet.
Since transformations occur in stages, the process can produce clear evidence of the sequence of groups of books as defined by the state of the font that appears in each group. However, the transformation evidence cannot distinguish the sequence in which the books within a group were printed. Given a group of four books, then, the target book (or section of a shared book) may be separated from the transformation book by the total number of sheets in the two other books. It also could have been printed directly after the transformation book. In short, the evidence provides only a prior terminus for the printing of a book in the shop's schedule. In some cases, extraordinary circumstances may strongly suggest that the transformation book was completed without interruption.
In general, changes in a font's overall composition during its lifetime provide the evidence for distinguishing transient and permanent transformations and the sequence of states. The following analysis of the transformations of Bynneman-Y1 defines the printing context of A Hundreth in terms of the sequence of the groups of books printed during 1573. The evidence reveals an additional unsuspected division within Bynneman's second section at Cc-Dd.
Pre-1573. Bynneman-Y1. Bynneman-Y1 first(?) appeared in A dictionarie STC6832 in 1570 lacking both the 'W w' and 'fh' ligature which forced alternate settings of 'VV vv' and 'short-s h'. A few S-face 'k1' fouled the font in 1570-71 but were purged. A transient transformation in the font occurred in the setting of 'w' during 1572. Y-face 'vv' was invariably set during 1570-72 except in four books in which the compositor(s) alternated the S-face crimped 'w4' with Y-face 'vv' (T. shippe STC5952; A Speciall STC11759; Eclogues STC22991; and An Answer Q1 STC25427, B-I). Such a restriction of contamination to a single sort or two permits distinguishing this state (1572) of
Group I. STC11635a (B-X). 21 sheets. Bynneman-Y1a appears in two books from 1573. Certaine Brief STC19060 (one sheet) seems to have been printed at this time. The setting of Y-face 'vv' is invariable in A Hundreth STC11635a (B3-X4v, twenty sheets containing Supposes and Iocasta). Only two S-face 'g1' (F3v, L3v) and one 'fi' ligature (F3v) appear in Y1a stage directions. Despite this limited sample, it is clear that STC11635a was printed after the introduction of the S-face 'fi' ligature in 2A of An Answer Q1 STC25427. Typographically speaking, STC11635a belongs with I-2A, * 2-3v of STC19137.5 and 2E, A of STC19139 which were probably printed contemporaneously with STC25427.
Group II. Bynneman-Y1b. 78 sheets. The transformed Y1b state is found in Group II consisting of five books totalling 78 sheets (Art of Reason STC 15541, Garden STC12464, De Furoribus STC13846, Historia STC20309 and approximately A-F of An Admonition Q3 STC25429) and is characterised by mixed S- and Y-face 'vv' and 'v' settings along with an expanded foul-case cluster. The transformation into Y1b actually occurred in 2A-P, A, bc of Q1 STC25427 which was completed either prior to or immediately after Christmas vacation. The S-face 'vv' was introduced at low-density levels late (2I3v, 2L3, 2M4v, 1A2) in STC25427; the 'c f k1' and 'ct f1 fl fi fl' ligatures also entered the font at this time. The non-appearance of the 'vv' and other letters in STC11635a, 19137.5, and 19139 is consistent with their low-density in STC25427. The 'f' and 'f1 fl ct' ligatures, for example, skip one or all of the
Group III. Bynneman-Y1c, STC11635b (2T-Cc). 127 sheets. Group III consists of seven books totalling 127 sheets (An Answer Q3 STC25429, G-2X; Certaine Godlie STC25010; A Christian Instruction STC24788; Margarita STC23003; A Hundreth STC11365b, 2T-Cc; An Exposition STC24171; The Supremacie STC3737, A-E2v) distinguished by the reappearance of S-face 'w4' in the context of S-face 'vv' and the expanded foul-case cluster of Y1b. STC25429 is the first book in 1573 in which Bynneman-S1 with the 'w4' alternates with Bynneman-Y1b (STC11635a required no 'w4' in the S1 settings). The extensive use of the two fonts within type-pages resulted in low-density 'w4' contamination. For example, an S1 quotation in K2:1-15 is followed by a Y1c quotation in K2:24-36 where the 'w4' appears at lines 32 and 36 and K2v:5. Moreover, the alternation increases the S-face 'vv' to new high-density levels (e.g., S-face/Y-face: 4/6, 10/7, 3/6, 9/29, 17/3, 15/12, 16/7, 19/13 etc.). In addition, a printing of STC25429 in proximity to STC25427 is suggested by the occurrence of the S-face 'k1' (STC25427: 2A3v, 2L2v; STC25429: F4, H2, M3) and F-hybrid short second-stem 'w' (STC25427, D4, I1v; STC25429, G4-4v, K2, 2E3v) only in these two books. The typographical evidence indicates that A Hundreth STC11635b (2T-Cc) was printed after STC25429. The Y1c sample in 2T-Cc amounts to about 48 lines ("Gascoigne" appears in about half of these). The ratio of S-face 'vv' to 'w4' to Y-face 'vv' settings (18/4/22) requires that the contamination have occurred in a previous book since Bynneman-S1 was not used after STC11635a B-X. Bynneman-S1 appears along with Y1c in two books other than STC25429 in Group III but neither presented an opportunity for contamination. Y1c is limited to T2:2-18 of Certaine Godly STC25010. In A Christian STC24778, S1 is used exclusively for emphasis to Q4v followed by a Y1c stint to 2A where the S-face 'vv' and 'w4' are already at high-density levels. In short, the setting of An Answer Q3 STC25429 produced the contamination of Bynneman-Y1c as it appears in the remaining books of Group III.
The introduction of S-face 'P' clearly is attributable to compositorial inconsistency in setting emphasis names in STC11635b; for example, Y1c serves this function in (repeat alphabet assumed) T2, T4, U1, U2, and U3 while the compositor turns to Bynneman-S1 in T2v, T3v, and T4v, and then sets the S1 "C[ae]sars" and "Greekes" separated by a Y1c "Menelaus" in U2v. A similar mixing occurs in Aa1-2v: the compositor set three Y-face and two S-face 'P' in Aa2 and six Y-face and one S-face 'P' in Aa2v; the latter appears in "Pencoyde" where the Y-face lower-case is used. Some of these S-face 'P' were mis-distributed into the Y1c case to reappear in STC23003 and STC
Group IV. Bynneman-Y1d, STC11635c,d (Dd-Hh; Ii, A). 173 sheets. The transformation into Bynneman-Y1d occurred in the massive T. Supremacie STC3737 (153 sheets) where Bynneman-Y1c,d, -S1, and the Guyot 76mm roman alternate as emphasis and quotation fonts. Bynneman-Y1c sets S-face 'w4' and the mixed Y1c and S1 'vv' to E2v. The newly acquired Guyot short second-stem 'w' begins replacing the 'vv' in E3 and is set almost exclusively thereafter including numerous quotation settings of up to 1½ pages in length. Likewise, the newly acquired Guyot 'fh' ligature replaces the 'short-s h' settings; low-density S-face 'x2' appears as well. The importance of discovering a font transformation in progress cannot be overstated. In addition to establishing a firm point of reference in the shop schedule, the discovery provides the correct context for interpreting this kind of typographical evidence. The fact that the new Guyot 'w' appears in A Hundreth STC11635d in two Y1d poem titles in Dd1:8-10, 19-21 (seven Guyot 'w', no 'vv') followed by a Guyot 76mm roman editorial link (Dd1:28,29) could suggest that the compositor fouled the Y1d poem titles from the Guyot case while setting the page. The observed transformation in STC3737 proves that the Guyot short second-stem 'w' was already in the font in state Y1d. Therefore A Hundreth 2Dd-Ii, A, A Briefe STC11985, and T. Closet STC7623 were printed after the transformation to Bynneman-Y1d in T. Supremacie STC3737. The final appearance as Bynneman-Y1e in T. First Part STC22241 exhibits the increasing density of the cluster as well as additional S-face letters as is typical of the final depletion of a font. It does not appear to have been used after this book.
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