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I
On the simplest level, font analysis distinguishes between two fonts in dissimilar faces with no greater difficulty than obtains, by analogy, in recognizing that a modern face such as Courier is different from Prestige. In general, typefaces can be distinguished upon the basis of differences in size, either apparent or real, and stylistic differences in the design of the letters. The width and height of the body of the types respectively determine the horizontal spacing between letters and the vertical spacing between lines, although measurements of the latter using the standard method are sometimes less than precise because of paper shrinkage across four centuries.[7] Width is generally classified in relative terms such as "condensed" or "narrow", "medium", "wide", and "expanded". Most letters (or sorts) of the S-face are set on a wider body than in the Y-face, especially in regard to 'a r' and the thin letters 'i j l t'. The effect of this body-size on overall appearance can be seen by comparing the spacing in combinations such as "are", "and", and "illusion". The type seems spread out in the S-face leaving more "white space" within words in a line of set type. The use of wide and expanded 'k x z', and a bold left-stem on the 'v y' adds to this effect.[8] In contrast, the thin letters of the Y-face are set on a narrower body, and, along with the medium 'k v x y z', produce an appearance of more densely packed type, with quite prominent white spaces between words, but little within words.
The general design of the S-face (see footnote 12 for the naming of these fonts as S and Y) further contributes to its squarish, open appearance. The vertical elements of the letters are thicker than the horizontal curved portions so that the former print more boldly than the latter. In technical terms, the "weight" or relative density of blackness of the parts of a letter establishes the "contrast" between thick and thin strokes, and the orientation of thick to thin defines the "stress": thus the S-face exhibits "vertical stress" or vertical "shading". The stress is not necessarily uniform in all letters, but dictated by shape. The diagonal letters (A M N S V W X Y Z v w x y z) exhibit oblique stress with thin vertical or right-leaning and bold left-leaning (relative to the baseline) strokes. In the lower-case letters, the bold inking of shoulders (a h m n) and bowls (b d p q) at the x-line makes the typeface appear higher and wider than it actually is. On the other hand, the Y-face is relatively unstressed so that all portions of a letter print with nearly equal boldness, except for the light shading that characterizes the shoulders of the tall letters, ligatures and the curved portions of several lower-case letters. The Y-face's lighter weight and contrast is obvious to the naked eye even when heavily inked. Viewed at high magnification (30X) in original books, the metal elements that form Y-face letters (i.e., the surface of the type which makes contact with the paper) seem rounded on the edges, whereas S-face letters exhibit elements with usually sharp squared edges.
An analysis of the specific differences in the structure of the letters in the two faces can clarify the relation between the stylistic design of specific letters and the overall appearance of a typeface. Font analysis is facilitated by the fact that letters can be classified in groups on the basis of shape. A major difference in design can be seen in the group consisting of the 'f' and the long-(or tall-) 'ſ' and their associated ligatures. In the S-face, the uniformly thin shoulder stroke is a rather flat arc which abruptly curves just below the h-line into the bold vertical stem. It terminates at the right with a quite small "pear". The shoulder frequently appears shaded because of the accumulation of ink along its bottom edge and around the pear; lightly inked letters and the shoulders of some ligatures reveal the actual weight of the shoulder. In many of these letters, damage has nudged the right half of the shoulder upward so that it terminates horizontally. The shoulders of the 'ſſ ff ffi' ligatures are similarly formed. Both shoulders are of equal height and the left joins the right slightly below the h-line, rather than being vertically staggered as in the Y-face. The 'ſh ſl ſt' ligatures clarify this design characteristic. A bit of the ascender of the 'h' and the 'l' in the former extend above the shoulder junction, while the 't' of the 'ſt' ligature reaches almost to the h-line before joining the shoulder. Damage frequently flattens the shoulders into a single continuous arc and nudges the right termination upward.
In contrast, the tall letters of the Y-face are shaded. The shoulder of the 'f' and tall-'ſ' commences with a graceful curve just above the cross at the x-line and thins as the stroke moves through a diagonal to the horizontal, then broadens in the downward stroke that completes the shoulder. It terminates noticeably below the h-line with a large pear. The letters in the ligatures are vertically staggered: the left 'ſ' or 'f' is a bit shorter than the right letter. The shading of the downward stroke that completes the shoulder is obvious in the ſh, ſl and ſt ligatures, where the 'h l t' are shortened to accommodate the low junction with the shoulder. The junction commonly gathers ink and accentuates the shaded structure of the shoulder. The difference between the two faces in regard to shoulder structure is quite obvious at high magnification where the actual impression of the face elements can be detected without the obfuscation caused by the inking-in of the curves and joints. The overall effect of the shoulder structure in the ligatures and tall 'ſ f' is that the horizontal space between lines in the S-face is uncluttered by the bold inking produced by the shaded, staggered shoulders that characterise the Y-face. Finally, the 'ct' ligature provides an easily detected discriminant. The "open" 'ct' ligature is typical of the S-face: the body of the 'c' is slanted left and seems improperly formed since neither end of the 'c' "closes up" with the 't' and a considerable amount of white space obtains between the two letters. In contrast, the Y-face uses an elegantly formed 'ct' ligature in which the body of the 'c' is fully formed and closes up with the cross and base of the 't'; the letters are joined by a graceful link whose orientation and size balances the 'c'.
The two faces are further differentiated in the lower-case by the formation of the shoulders, bowls and top-serifs. In the S-face, the counter, or enclosed white space, in the round (or "oval" to be precise) letters (o d q)
Lower-case letters are unstressed in the Y-face. The 'o' is formed by a round stroke of uniform thickness. The bowls of the 'b d p q' exhibit barely noticeable vertical stress because the portions of the bowl which join the vertical stroke are thinned slightly at 12 and 6 o'clock. In contrast to the distinct oblique junction angle of the S-face, Y-face bowl and shoulder junctions are nearly right angles at the x-line. In the 'b', for example, the round line to the left of the axis is bent upward toward the horizontal to join the ascender almost on the x-line at half the height of the ascender. At the bottom of the letter, the round line of the bowl touches the baseline and curves upward slightly to join with the ascender, which is thus displaced above the baseline. Evenly proportioned round letters result from this design concept, which is inverted in the 'p q': the baseline junction is nearly horizontal, while the top junction forms a slight oblique angle. The shoulder stroke of the
The two faces can be further differentiated by lower-case diagonal letters (k v w x y z) and the 'g'. The S-face diagonal letters are commonly of expanded width which is accentuated by pronounced serifs, the right-angle crossing of the diagonals in the 'x', and the long arms of the 'z'. Pronounced serifs and heavy oblique stress of the left stem creates an impression of extra width in the 'y v', although they are of medium width. The "squat" appearance of the 'k' results from the low junction of the link of the arm-leg at ¼-height on the ascender, the right angle enclosed by the arm-leg in the common variants, and the pronounced arm and leg serifs. In contrast, medium-width diagonal letters are found in the Y-face in the 'v w x y' sorts, although a condensed 'y' variant is common. The left stem of the 'y v' exhibit minimal stress and a smaller enclosed angle than in the S-face. Several 'k' variants occur, but the junction of the arm-leg link at about ⅓-height on the ascender is always higher than in the S-face 'k' and produces a more balanced proportioning. Finally, the loop of the 'g' is noticeably larger than the bowl in the S-face; the loop-stroke begins at the base line, while the link pushes the bowl to the x-line. In Eld's version of the S-face, the left edge of both bowl and loop are vertically aligned, creating a left-slant; in another common variant, the bowl and loop are centered for an erect appearance. The bowl of the 'g' in the Y-face, in contrast, is approximately the same width as the loop, and the letter is vertically aligned.
Stylistic differences are generally more obvious in the capitals, particularly with respect to several awkward, poorly proportioned letters in the S-face which contrast with the more balanced symmetry of the Y-face capitals. The gross, excessively wide and awkward 'M' of the S-face is characterised by a single left top-serif and slanted legs. The Y-face uses a symmetrical 'M' with double shoulder serifs that are integral to the 'V' stroke that connects the erect legs. The bowl stroke of round S-face capitals such as 'P B D R' begins considerably to the left of the ascender on the characteristic oblique angle and complements the accentuated shoulder- and base-serifs of other capitals, while in the Y-face, the bowl stroke is horizontal and barely overextends the ascender. The S-face uses an obtrusively large 'P' whose bowl stroke terminates far below the x-line and does not close up with the ascender; the letter clashes aesthetically with the 'B' and especially the 'R', with its aenemic bowl that terminates at the x-line and its stressed tail that extends awkwardly beyond the bowl. In the Y-face, the 'B P R' are of similar proportions. The tall rectangular 'E F' are noticeably narrow for the S-face, particularly in regard
A few hours examination of the two faces in originals or high quality facsimiles of any of the books noted in later discussion will familiarize the reader with the essentials of typeface design and structure. The considerable differences between the S-face and the Y-face render them easily distinguishable even to the novice after such an exercise. It seems a fortunate coincidence that in many cases of shared printing, versions of the two faces alternate in sections of a book. In such cases, a comparative analysis need only progress through a few groups of letters before the "gross features" illustrated above distinguish the different fonts, providing sufficient cause to suggest that further bibliographical analysis proceed upon the assumption that two printers were involved. However, that is merely the beginning step in the application of font analysis. A book printed in more than two fonts almost inevitably requires distinguishing two same-face fonts, followed by an attempt at identifying the fonts in other books for the purpose of sorting out the printers. That process is facilitated by a comprehensive font composite that graphically records the distinguishing traits of a given font.[9]
The identification process itself requires that the font in the target book be compared to extremely similar, same-face fonts in other books. Similarly, in many instances of sharing that involved more than two printers, two or more versions of the same typeface are encountered in different sections of a book. In both situations, the bibliographer then is faced with a more complex task of analysis, since distinguishing between fonts in the same face is a much more difficult proposition because the general stylistic traits are identical except for infrequent variants. Assuming that the two same-face fonts and their respective sections of the book have been successfully distinguished, an attempt to identify the printers is further complicated by the fact that, quite understandably, the preliminary candidates will be selected primarily because they used the typeface in their known work. Hence, the general kind of stylistic analysis described above must be supplemented by a more refined and detailed focus upon potential discriminants within the context of nearly identical fonts. As a general rule, discriminants can be detected in this situation
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