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5. Nouns

The nouns may be divided into the following groups: basic nouns, nouns with constant possessor, thematic nouns, verbal abstracts, and compound nouns.

Basic nouns are those composed of a single free theme: 'á 'fog'; 'éé' 'coat'; k'os 'cloud'; tó 'water'; k'aa 'arrow'.

Included in this class are certain nouns composed of a stem plus a suffix which cannot be isolated: taazhe 'chicken'; tałé 'cedar'; gáͅhe 'supernaturals of the mountains' kéhee 'stick [or moccasin] game'.

When basic nouns are preceded by a possessive pronoun prefix, they sometimes alter in form. Such alternations are as follows: an initial voiceless spirant may become voiced, a final voiceless spirant may become voiced, final consonants other than voiceless spirants may change, and a vocalic suffix may be added. Examples: 'éé' 'coat', bi-éd-e 'his coat' [bi- 'his']; t'á 'feather', bi-t'a' 'his feather'; k'aa 'arrow', bik'a' 'his arrow'; béésh 'knife', bibézhe 'his knife; heeł 'pack', bighééł 'his pack'; łi'smoke', bi-lid-e 'his smoke'.

Nouns with constant possessor are composed of a single bound stem [generally monosyllabic but also disyllabic] plus a possessive pronoun prefix. Nouns of this classification fall into three sub-groups.

a. Body part nouns: shi-tsii 'my head' [shi- 'my']; shi-zháde 'my leg'; shi-kee 'my foot'; shi-ndáa 'my eye'. With nouns of this group it is possible to distinguish between alienable and inalienable possession. Thus, for example, shi-tsii 'my head' refers to the head which is a part of my body but shi-'i-tsii 'my head' ['i- indefinite possessor] refers to a head originally a part of someone's body but now in my possession.

b. Kinship terms: shi-má 'my mother'; shi-taa 'my father'; shi-k'is 'my sibling of same sex'; shi-béézhe 'my stepfather'.

c. Nouns denoting locality [the independent postpositions]: bi-ghe' 'its inside, inside of it'; bi-ch'iͅiͅ 'toward it'; bi-ch'áͅ 'away from it'; bi-ká 'its top, surface; on top of it'.

In compounds, nouns with constant possessor sometimes occur without the prefix: tsii-t'á 'top of the head' [tsii- 'head, -t'á 'top']; dá-ghe' 'region of the throat' [dá- 'chin' , found only in compounds; ghe' 'inside']; dá-ghaa 'beard' [-ghaa 'hair']. Some compounds of this sort, however, also require a constant possessor: shi- ndii-ts'in 'my malar bones' [ndii- 'face', -ts'in 'bone']; shi- ndá-ts'in 'my supraorbitals' [ndá- 'eye'. Note that the form of the word for eye is different when it occurs outside the compound; cf. shi- ndáa 'my eye'].

Thematic nouns are composed of a prefix plus a stem. The prefix cannot be isolated from the stem in meaning. Examples: di-béhé 'sheep'; yá-ti 'talk, conversation; ná-t'oh 'tobacco'; go- tál 'ceremony'; koo-ghaͅ [also goo-ghaͅ] 'tipi', 'wickiup, home'; koo-ta [also go-ta] 'an encampment'. These nouns do not alter their forms in the possessive: shi-dibéhé 'my sheep'; shi-kooghaͅ 'my home'; shi-nát'oh 'my tobacco'.

Some verbal abstracts are verb forms which function as nouns; others are verb forms plus a relative enclitic. Examples: naat'á 'chief, leader; he leads, directs'; 'ént'íͅ 'witch; he is a witch'; gołga 'plain, clearing; place is white'; dighiͅ 'shaman, ceremony, spiritual power; it is holy'; shiłnaa'aash 'my spouse; he [or she] lives with me'; łibá-ń 'a class of supernaturals' [libá 'he is gray', -ń relative]; ha'dii'á-ń 'singer' [ha'dii'á 'he customarily sings']. Some nouns of this class are formed by adding a postposition to a verb form: ha'ii'áh-yá 'east' [ha'ii'á 'the sun customarily moves upward'; -yá 'place where'; -h- ?]; nandi'áh-yá 'south' [nandi'á'the sun customarily starts to turn'].

Noun compounds are very common in both languages and occur in a wide variety of forms. In this brief discussion, only a few of the more frequently occurring types can be described.

a. Noun plus noun: tsii-t'á 'top of the head' [tsii- 'head', -ts'á 'top], dáá-ghaa 'beard' [dá- 'chin', -ghaa 'hair'], łíͅ-ghe' 'underground' [łíͅ- 'ground', -ghe' 'inside'], tó-zis 'water bag' [tó 'water', -zis 'bag'], bééshtsaa 'bucket' [béésh 'metal', ts'aa 'basket'], tłaa-kaał 'skirt' [tłaa- 'buttocks', -kał 'leather'].

b. Noun plus verb: tsiͅ-skaa 'place name' [tsiͅ 'wood', -skaa > sikaa 'a clump [e.g. of trees] lie'], tó-sikáͅ 'lake' [tó water', sikáͅ something in a container lies'], tó-ńlíͅ 'river' [ńlíͅ 'it flows'], tsíͅ-ntł'iz 'species hard wood' [ntł'iz 'it is hard'].

c.Noun plus verb plus relative enclitic. In compounds of this type, three relative enclitics occur: -í and -ń which have been discussed before [see 2] and -é, an archaic relative. Compounds employing -é frequently involve archaic forms of the verb as well. tó-noogay-é 'Dripping Springs [a place name]' [tó 'water', noogay-, an archaic form of the verb nooga 'whiteness moves downward], łíͅghe'-naa'indil-é 'gopher' [łíͅghé' underground', naa'indil 'he scatters it about'], mai-datł'izh-é 'fox' [mai 'coyote', datł'izh 'it is blue, gray'], tsé-nteel-í 'flat rock' [tsé 'rock', nteel 'it is flat'], 'ísaa-dihndí-í 'drum' ['ísaa 'pot', dihndí 'a noise is made'], naada-haas'á-í 'a sacred mountain' [naada 'mescal', haas'á 'it extends upward'], ndé-naagóńłt'éń [ndé 'person', naagóńłt'é 'he is bad'].

Other and more complex compounds exist in addition to those described above. Numerous examples of these are analyzed in the notes.