University of Virginia Library

Chapter XLIV

ON ASSUMERS[1]

In general, the principal way of government does not
solely mean the justice of reward and punishment. Much less
does it mean[2] to reward men of no merit and punish innocent
people. However, to reward men of merit, punish men of
demerit, and make no mistake in so doing but affect such
persons only,[3] can neither increase men of merit nor eliminate
men of demerit. For this reason, among the methods of
suppressing villainy the best is to curb the mind, the next,
the word, and the last, the work.

Modern people all say, "Who honours the sovereign
and safeguards the country, always resorts to benevolence,

righteousness, wisdom, and ability"; while they ignore
the fact that those who actually humble the sovereign
and endanger the country, always appeal to benevolence,
righteousness, wisdom, and ability. Therefore, the sovereign
pursuing the true path would estrange upholders of benevolence
and righteousness, discard possessors of wisdom and
ability, and subdue the people by means of law. That being
so, his fame spreads far and wide, his name becomes awe-inspiring,
his subjects are orderly, and his country is safe,
because he knows how to employ the people. As a rule, tact
is what the sovereign holds in hand; law is what the officials
take as models.[4] If so, it will not be difficult to make the
courtiers get news everyday from outside and see the law
prevail from the neighbourhood of the court[5] to the state-frontiers.

In bygone days, the Yu-hu Clan had Shih Tu; the
Huan-tou Clan had Ku Nan; the Three Miaos had Ch`êng
Chü; Chieh had Hu Ch`i; Chow had Marquis Ch`ung;
and Chin had Actor Shih. These six men were "state-ruining
ministers".[6] They spoke of right as if it were wrong, and
of wrong as if it were right. Being crafty in mind, they acted
contrary to their outward looks; pretending to a little
prudence, they testified to their goodness. They praised
remote ancients to hinder present enterprises. Skilful in
manipulating[7] their sovereigns, they gathered detailed secrets
and perturbed them with their likes and dislikes. They were
the same types of men as most courtiers and attendants.

Of the former sovereigns, some got men through whom
they became safe and their states were preserved, and some
got men through whom they were jeopardized and their
states went to ruin. The getting of men was one and the same
but the differences between gains and losses are hundreds of
thousands. Therefore, the lord of men must not fail to take
precautions against his attendants. If the lord of men clearly
understands the words of the ministers, he can differentiate
the worthy from the unworthy as black from white.

Hsü Yu, Shu Ya, Pai Yang,[8] Tien Chieh of Ch`in,[9]
Ch`iao Ju of Lu,[10] Hu Pu-chi, Chung Ming, Tung Pu-shih,
Pien Sui, Wu Kuang, Po-i, and Shu-ch`i, all twelve men
were neither delighted at evident profits nor afraid of
impending disasters. Some of them, when given the rule
over All-under-Heaven, never took it. Some of them, afraid
of incurring humility and disgrace, never welcomed the
privilege of receiving bounties.[11] Indeed, not delighted at
evident profits, they could never be encouraged, though the
superior made rewards big; not afraid of impending disasters,
they could never be terrified, though the superior made
penalties severe. They were the so-called "disobedient
people".[12] Of these twelve men, some be dead in caves and
holes, some died of exhaustion among grass and trees, some
starved to death in mountains and ravines, and some drowned
themselves in streams and fountains. If there were people
like these, even sage-kings of antiquity could not subject

them. How much less would rulers of the present age be able
to employ them?

Kuan Lung-p`êng, Prince Pi Kan, Chi Liang of Sui, Hsieh
Yeh of Ch`ên, Pao Shên[13] of Ch`u, and Tzŭ-hsü of Wu, these
six men disputed straightly and expostulated bitterly with
their masters in order to overcome them. When their words
were listened to and their projects were carried out, then they
would assume the attitude of tutor towards pupil; when
even a word was not listened to and but one project was not
carried out, then they would humiliate their sovereigns with
offensive phraseology and threatening gestures. Even in the
face of death, the break-up of their families, the severing of
their waists and necks, and the separation of their hands and
feet, they had no hesitation in so doing. If ministers like
these could not be tolerated by the sage-kings of antiquity,
how could they be employed by rulers of the present age?

As regards T`ien Hêng of Ch`i, Tzŭ-han of Sung, Chi-sun
I-ju, Ch`iao Ju[14] of Lu, Tzŭ Nan Ching of Wei, Chancellor
Hsin of Chêng, Duke White of Ch`u, San Tu of Chou, and
Tzŭ-chih of Yen, these nine men, while ministers, all formed
juntas for self-seeking purposes in serving their rulers. In
obscuring the right way and thereby practising private
crookedness, in intimidating the rulers above and thereby
disturbing the government below, in securing foreign support
to bend the policy of internal administration, and in making
friends with the inferiors so as to plot against the superiors,

they had no hesitation. Ministers like these could be
suppressed only by sage-kings and wise sovereigns. Would
it be possible for stupid and outrageous rulers[15] to discover
them?

Hou Chi, Kao Yao, Yi Yin, Duke Tan of Chou, T`ai-kung
Wang, Kuan Chung, Hsi P`êng, Pai Li-hsi, Chien Shu,
Uncle Fan, Chao Shuai, Fan Li, High Official Chung, Fêng
Tung, Hua Têng, these fifteen men, while ministers, all
got up early in the morning and went to bed late at night,
humbled themselves and debased their bodies; they were,
cautious in mind and frank in intention, and clarified penal
actions and attended to official duties in serving their rulers.
When they presented good counsels to the Throne and
convinced their masters thoroughly of right laws, they dared
not boast of their own goodness. When they had achieved
merits and accomplished tasks, they dared not show off their
services. They made no hesitation in sacrificing their family
interests to benefit their countries and no hesitation in
sacrificing their lives to safeguard the sovereigns, holding
their sovereigns in as high esteem as high heaven and the
T`ai Mountain and regarding themselves as low as the deep
ravines and the Fu-yu[16] Stream. Though their sovereigns
had a distinguished name and a widespread fame in the
states, they had no hesitation in keeping themselves as low
as the deep ravines and the Fu-yu Stream. Ministers like
these, even under stupid and outrageous masters, could still
achieve meritorious service. How much more could they
do under brilliant sovereigns? Such are called "Assistants
to Hegemonic Rulers".[17]

Hua Chih of Chou, Kung-sun[18] Shên of Chêng, Kung-sun
Ning and Yi Hsing-fu of Ch`ên, Yü Yin Shên Hai of
Ching, Shao Shih of Sui, Chung Kan of Yüeh, Wang-sun
O of Wu, Yang-ch`êng Hsieh of Chin, Shu Tiao and Yi Ya
of Ch`i, these twelve[19] man, while ministers, all thought about
small profits and forgot legal justice. In public they kept
worthy and good personages in obscurity in order to delude
and befool their sovereigns; in private they disturbed all the
officials and caused them disasters and difficulties. When
serving their masters, they partook of the same tastes with
them to such an extent that if they could give one pleasure to
the sovereigns, they would have no hesitation in plunging
the states into ruin and putting the masses to death. Were
there ministers like these, even sage-kings would fear lest they
should be dismayed. How much less could stupid and
outrageous rulers avoid losses?

Whoever had ministers like these men, always was put to
death and his state driven to ruin, and has been ridiculed by
All-under-Heaven. Thus, Duke Wei of Chou was killed and
his state divided into two; Tzŭ-yang of Chêng was killed
and his state divided into three; Duke Ling of Ch`ên was
killed by Hsia Chêng-shu; King Ling of Ching died by the
Dry Brook; Sui was ruined by Ching; Wu was annexed by
Yüeh; Earl Chih was extinguished in the vicinity of Chin-yang;
while Duke Huan lay dead and unburied for sixty-seven[20]
days. Hence the saying: "Adulatory ministers are
known only by sage-kings." Outrageous sovereigns welcome

them. In consequence, they are killed and their states go to
ruin.

The same is not true of sage-kings and enlightened rulers.
When selecting able men for office, they mind neither relatives
nor enemies. Whoever is right is raised, whoever is wrong is
punished. Therefore, the worthy and good are advanced;
the vicious and wicked are dismissed. Naturally they can at
one effort bring all the feudal lords under submission. Thus
in ancient Records there is the saying: "Yao had Tan-chu,
Shun had Shang-chün, Ch`i had Five Princes, Shang had
T`ai-chia, and King Wu had Kuan and Ts`ai." Now, all these
men censured by the five rulers were related to them as father
and son, uncle and nephew, cousins, or brothers. But why
were their bodies broken and their families ruined? It was
because they were state-ruining, people-harming, and lawbreaking
men. Suppose we look at the personages the
five rulers appointed to office. They were found amidst
mountains, forests, jungles, swamps, rocks, and caves, or in
jails, chains, and bonds, or in the status of a cook, a cattle-breeder,
and a cowherd. Nevertheless, the intelligent
sovereigns, not ashamed of their low and humble origins,
considered them able to illustrate the law, benefit the state,
and prosper the people, and, accordingly, appointed them to
office. In consequence, they gained personal safety and
honourable reputation.

The ignoble sovereigns would act differently. Not
aware of the motives and actions of their ministers, they
entrusted them with state affairs. In consequence, their
names are debased and their territories dismembered; or,
what is worse, their states are ruined and they themselves are
killed. For they do not know how to employ ministers.

Rulers who have no measures to estimate their ministers,
always judge them on the basis of the sayings of the masses.
Whoever is praised by the masses, is liked. Therefore, those
who minister to rulers would even disrupt their families and
ruin their property to form factions inside and keep contact
with influential clans and thereby become known. When they
form secret promises and alliances and thereby strengthen
their positions, and when they deceptively reward[21] people
with ranks and bounties as encouragements, each of them
would say: "Whoever sides with me shall be benefited and
whoever does not side with me shall be damaged." The
masses, greedy of the gain and afraid of the threat, believe
that when really happy, they will benefit them, and when
really[22] angry, they will damage them, wherefore all turn and
stick to them. As a result, their fame spreads all over the
country and reaches the ear of the sovereigns. Unable to
understand the real situation, the sovereigns regard them as
worthies.

They also disguise deceitful men as favourite envoys from
the feudal lords and equip them with coaches and horses,
provide them with jade and bamboo tablets,[23] dignify them
with writs of appointment, and supply them with money
and silk. Thus, they make the false envoys from the feudal
lords beguile their sovereigns. With self-seeking motives in
mind the false envoys discuss public affairs. They pretend to
represent the sovereigns of other states, but in reality they
speak for the men around the sovereigns they are visiting.

Delighted at their words and convinced by their
phraseology, they regard these men as worthies in All-under
Heaven, the more so as everybody, whether in or out, right
or left,[24] makes only one kind of reputation for them and
repeats the same conversation about them. In consequence,
the sovereigns have no hesitation in lowering themselves
and their supreme status and thereby condescending to them
or at least benefiting them with high rank and big bounties.

Indeed, if the ranks and bounties of wicked men are
influential and their partisans and adherents are many, and
if besides, they have vicious and wicked motives, their wicked
subordinates will persuade them time and time again, saying:
"The so-called sage-rulers and enlightened kings of antiquity
succeeded their predecessors not as juniors succeeding seniors
in the natural order,[25] but because they had formed parties
and gathered influential clans and then molested their
superiors, murdered the rulers, and thereby sought after
advantage." "How do you know that?" they ask. In reply
the subordinates say: "Shun intimidated Yao, Yü intimidated
Shun, T`ang banished Chieh, and King Wu censured
Chow. These four rulers were ministers who murdered their
rulers, but All-under-Heaven have extolled them. The inner
hearts of these four rulers, if observed carefully, displayed
nothing but the motive of greediness and gain[26] ; their
actions, if estimated closely, were simply weapons of violence
and outrage. Nevertheless, while the four rulers were
extending their powers at their pleasure, All-under-Heaven

made much of them; while they were noising their names
abroad, All-under-Heaven regarded them as intelligent. In
consequence, their authority became sufficient to face Allunder-Heaven
and their advantages became sufficient to
challenge their age. Naturally All-under-Heaven followed
them."

"As witnessed by recent times," continue the crooks
further, "Viscount T`ien Chêng took Ch`i, Ssŭ-ch`êng Tzŭ-han
took Sung, Chancellor Hsin took Chêng, the San Clan
took Chou, Yi Ya[27] took Wei, and the three Viscounts of
Han, Chao, and Wey partitioned Chin. These eight men[28]
were ministers who murdered their rulers." Hearing this,
the wicked ministers would spring to their feet, prick up their
ears, and regard it as right. Accordingly, they will form
parties at home, develop friendly contact[29] with influential
clans outside, watch for the right moment to launch the turn
of affairs, and take the state at one stroke.

Again, those who intimidate and murder the rulers with
partisans and adherents at home and reform or alter their
states through the influences of the feudal lords outside, thus
concealing the right way and upholding private crookedness
so as to restrain the ruler above and obstruct the government
below, are innumerable. Why? It is because the ruler does
not know how to select ministers. The ancient Records
says: "Since the time of King Hsüan of Chou ruined states
number several tens and ministers who murdered their rulers
and took their states are many." If so, the calamities which
originated inside and those which developed from outside

were half and half. Those who had exerted the forces of the
masses, broke up the states, and sacrificed their lives, were all
worthy sovereigns; whereas those who overexerted themselves,[30]
changed their positions, saved the masses but
estranged[31] the states, were the most pitiful sovereigns.

If the lord of men[32] really penetrates the ministers' speeches,
then even though he spends all his time in hunting with nets
and stringed arrows, driving and riding around, playing bell
music, and, seeing girl dancers, his state will remain in existence;
whereas, if he does not penetrate the ministers' speeches,
then even though he is frugal and industrious, wears hemp
clothes, and eats poor food, the state will go to ruin of itself.

For example, Marquis Ching, an early Ruler of Chao,
never cultivated his virtuous conduct, but would give rein to
the satisfaction of desires and enjoy physical comforts and
auditory and visual pleasures. He spent winter days in
hunting with nets and stringed arrows and summer time in
boating and fishing. He would sometimes drink all night long,
sometimes even hold his wine cup for several days, pour wine
with bamboo ladles into the mouths of those who could not
drink, and behead anybody not prudent in advance and
retreat or not reverent in response and reply. Though
his way of living, acting, drinking, and eating, was so
unscrupulous and his way of censure and execution was so
reckless, yet he enjoyed ruling his state for more than ten
years,[33] during which period of time his soldiers were never

crushed by enemy states, nor was his land ever invaded by any
surrounding neighbour, nor was there any disorder between
ruler and minister or among the officials at home, nor was
there any worry about the feudal lords and the neighbouring
states, for he knew how to appoint ministers to office.

Contrary to this, Tzŭ-k`uai, Ruler of Yen, a descendant of
Duke Shih of Chao, ruled[34] over a territory several thousand li
square and had spear-carriers several hundred thousands in
number, and neither indulged in the pleasures of pretty girls,
nor listened to the music of bells and stones, nor cared for the
reflecting pool and the raised kiosk inside the palace, nor went
hunting with nets and stringed arrows in the fields outside.
Furthermore, he personally handled ploughs and hoes to rectify
the dikes and tracts of farms and fields. So extremely did
Tzŭ-k`uai distress himself in grieving at the people's sorrows
that even the so-called sage-kings and enlightened rulers of
antiquity who had themselves worked and grieved at the
sorrows of the world could not be compared with him.
However, Tzŭ-k`uai was killed; his state was lost to and
usurped by Tzŭ-chih; and he has become a laughing-stock
of All-under-Heaven. What was the reason[35] for this? It
was because he did not know how to appoint ministers to
office.

Hence the saying: "Ministers have five wickednesses,
which the sovereign does not know." Some would make
extravagant use of cash and goods as bribes for acquiring
honours; some would endeavour to bestow rewards and
favours for winning the hearts of the masses; some would
endeavour to form cliques, exert their wisdom, and honour

scholars, and thereby abuse their authority; some would
endeavour to pardon criminals and thereby increase their
influence; and some would follow the inferiors in praising
the straight and blaming the crooked and bewilder the people's
ears and eyes by virtue of strange phraseology, queer clothing,
and novel action. These five kinds of action are what the
intelligent rulers punish[36] and the sage-sovereigns forbid.
With these five kinds of action forbidden, deceitful men dare
not face the north and stand[37] and talk; and talkative but
impractical and law-breaking men dare not falsify facts and
thereby embellish their discussions. For this reason, the
officials in daily life will cultivate their personalities and in
action will exert their abilities. But for the superior's orders,
they will not dare to do anything as they please, utter
irresponsible words, and fabricate affairs. That is the way
the sage-kings superintend the ministers and the inferiors.

Indeed, if the sage-sovereigns and enlightened rulers do
not make[38] use of camouflage to watch their ministers, most
of their ministers will become double-faced at the sight of
camouflage. Hence the saying: "Among bastards some
children presume to be legitimate sons; among consorts some
concubines presume to be wives; in the court some officials
presume to be premiers; and among ministers the favourites
presume to be sovereigns." These four are dangers to the state.
Hence the saying: "The inner favourites compatible with
the queen, the outer favourites dividing the ruling prerogative,
the bastards rivalling the legitimate son, and the chief vassals
assuming the air of the sovereign, all lead to confusion."

Hence the Record of Chou says: "Do not exalt the concubine
and humble the wife. Do not debase the legitimate son and
exalt the bastard. Do not exalt any favourite subordinate as
rival to high officials. Do not exalt any chief vassal to assume
the majesty of his sovereign." If the four assumers collapse,
the superior will have no worry and the inferiors will have no
surprise.[39] If the four assumers do not collapse, the sovereign
will lose his life and ruin his state.