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B. Wind instruments.

Wood-wind.

Apart from the varying number of players, the formation of the
string group, with its five constituent parts remains constant, satisfying
the demands of any orchestral full score. On the other
hand the group of wood-wind instruments varies both as regards
number of parts and the volume of tone at its command, and here
the composer may choose at will. The group may be divided into
three general classes: wood-wind instruments in pair's, in three's
and in four's, (see table on page 13).

Arabic numerals denote the number of players on each instrument;
roman figures, the parts (1st, 2nd etc.). Instruments which
do not require additional players, but are taken over by one or the
other executant in place of his usual instrument, are enclosed in
brackets. As a rule the first flute, first oboe, first clarinet and first
bassoon never change instruments; considering the importance of
their parts it is not advisable for them to turn from one mouthpiece
to another. The parts written for piccolo, bass flute, English horn,
small clarinet, bass clarinet and double bassoon are taken by the
second and third players in each group, who are more accustomed
to using these instruments of a special nature.

     

Wood-wind in pair's	Wood-wind in three's	Wood-wind in four's
(II — Piccolo). 2 Flutes I.II.	(III — Piccolo). 3 Flutes I.II.III. (II — Bass flute).	1 Piccolo (IV). 3 Flutes I.II.III. (III — Bass flute).
2 Oboes I.II. (II — Eng. horn).	2 Oboes I.II. 1 Eng. horn (III). (II — Small clarinet).	3 Oboes I.II.III. 1 Eng. horn (IV). (II — Small clarinet).
2 Clarinets I.II. (II — Bass clarinet).	3 Clarinets I.II.III. (III — Bass clarinet).	3 Clarinets I.II.III. 1 Bass Clarinet (IV).
2 Bassoons I.II.	2 Bassoons I.II. 1 Double bassoon (III).	3 Bassoons I.II.III. 1 Double bassoon (IV).

The formation of the first class may be altered by the permanent
addition of a piccolo part. Sometimes a composer writes
for two piccolos or two Eng. horns etc. without increasing the
original number of players required (in three's or four's).

Note I. Composers using the first class in the course of a big work (oratorio,
opera, symphony, etc.) may introduce special instruments, called extras, for a
long or short period of time; each of these instruments involves an extra player
not required throughout the entire work. Meyerbeer was fond of doing this,
but other composers, Glinka for example, refrain from increasing the number
of performers by employing extras (Eng. horn part in Rousslân). Wagner uses
all three classes in the above table (in pair's: Tanhäuser — in three's: Tristan
— in four's: The Ring).

Note II. Mlada is the only work of mine involving formation by four's.
Ivan the Terrible, Sadko, The Legend of Tsar Saltan, The Legend of the
Invisible City of Kitesh and The Golden Cockerel all belong to the second
class, and in my other works, wood-wind in pair's is used with a varying
number of extras. The Christmas Night, with its two oboes, and two bassoons,
three flutes and three clarinets, forms an intermediate class.

Considering the instruments it comprises, the string group offers
a fair variety of colour, and contrast in compass, but this diversity
of range and timbre is subtle and not easily discerned.
In the wood-wind department, however, the difference in register
and quality of flutes, oboes, clarinets and bassoons is striking to a
degree. As a rule, wood-wind instruments are less flexible than

strings; they lack the vitality and power, and are less capable of
different shade of expression.

In each wind instrument I have defined the scope of greatest
expression, that is to say the range in which the instrument is
best qualified to achieve the various grades of tone, (forte, piano,
cresc., dim., sforzando, morendo, etc.) — the register which admits
of the most expressive playing, in the truest sense of the word.
Outside this range, a wind instrument is more notable for richness
of colour than for expression. I am probably the originator
of the term "scope of greatest expression". It does not apply to the
piccolo and double bassoon which represent the two extremes of
the orchestral compass. They do not possess such a register and
belong to the body of highly-coloured but non-expressive instruments.

The four kinds of wind instruments: flutes, oboes, clarinets and
bassoons may be generally considered to be of equal power. The
same cannot be said of instruments which fulfil a special purpose:
piccolo, bass flute, Eng. horn, small clarinet, bass clarinet and
double bassoon. Each of these instruments has four registers: low,
middle, high and extremely high, each of which is characterised
by certain differences of quality and power. It is difficult to define
the exact limits of each register; adjacent registers almost blend
together and the passage from one to another is scarcely noticeable.
But when the instrument jumps from one register to another the
difference in power and quality of tone is very striking.

The four families of wind instruments may be divided into
two classes: a) instruments of nasal quality and dark resonance —
oboes and bassoons (Eng. horn and double bassoon); and b) instruments
of "chest-voice" quality and bright tone — flutes and
clarinets (piccolo, bass flute, small clarinet, bass clarinet).

These characteristics of colour and resonance — expressed in
too simple and rudimentary a form — are specially noticeable in
the middle and upper registers. The lower register of the oboes
and bassoons is thick and rough, yet still nasal in quality; the
very high compass is shrill, hard and dry. The clear resonance
of the flutes and clarinets acquires something nasal and dark in the
lower compass; in the very high register it becomes somewhat
piercing.

Note to Table B.

In the following Table B the top note in each register serves as the bottom note
in the next, as the limits to each register are not defined absolutely. The note
G fixes the register of flutes and oboes, C for the clarinets and bassoons. In
the very high compass those notes are only given which can really be used;
anything higher and not printed as actual notes are either too difficult to
produce or of no artistic value. The number of sounds obtainable in the highest
compass is indefinite, and depends, partly on the quality of the instrument
itself, partly on the position and application of the lips. The signs > <
are not to be mistaken for crescendo and diminuendo; they indicate how the resonance of an instrument increases or diminishes in relation to the characteristic
quality of its timbre. The scope of greatest expression for each typical
instrument is marked thus, |________| under the notes; the range is the same
in each instrument of the same type.

Table B. Wind group.
These instruments give all chromatic intervals.

Note. It is a difficult matter to define tone quality in words; we must
encroach upon the domain of sight, feeling, and even taste. Though borrowed
from these senses, I have no doubt as to the appropriateness of my comparisons,
but, as a general rule definitions drawn from other sources are too elementary
to be applied to music. No condemnatory meaning however should be attached
to my descriptions, for in using the terms thick, piercing, shrill, dry, etc. my
object is to express artistic fitness in words, rather than material exactitude.
Instrumental sounds which have no musical meaning are classed by me in the
category of useless sounds, and I refer to them as such, giving my reasons.
With the exception of these, the reader is advised to consider all other orchestral
timbres beautiful from an artistic point of view, although it is necessary, at
times, to put them to other uses.

Further on, a table of wind instruments is appended, outlining the approximate
limit of range, defining different qualities of tone and indicating the scope
of greatest expression (the piccolo and double bassoon excepted).

Flutes and clarinets are the most flexible wood-wind instruments
(the flutes in particular), but for expressive power and subtlety
in nuances the clarinet supersedes them; this instrument can reduce
volume of tone to a mere breath. The nasal instruments, oboe
and bassoon, are less mobile and supple; this is accounted for
by their double reed, but, having to effect all sorts of scales and
rapid passages in common with the flutes and clarinets, oboes
and bassoons may be considered melodic instruments in the real
sense of the word, only of a more cantabile and peaceful character.
In very quick passages they often double the flutes, clarinets or strings.

The four families are equally capable of legato and staccato
playing and changing from one to the other in different ways,
but distinct and penetrating staccato passages are better suited to the
oboes and bassoons, while the flutes and clarinets excel in well-sustained
legato phrases. Composite legato passages should be
allotted to the first two instruments, composite staccato passages
to the latter pair, but these general directions should not deter
the orchestrator from adopting the opposite plan.

In comparing the technical individualities of the wood-wind the
following fundamental differences should be noted:

• a) The rapid repetition of a single note by single tonguing is common
  to all wind instruments; repetition of a single note by means
  of double tonguing is only possible on the flute, a reedless instrument.
• b) On account of its construction the clarinet is not well adapted
  to sudden leaps from one octave to another; these skips are
  easier on flutes, oboes and bassoons.

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• c) Arpeggios and rapid alternation of two intervals legato sound
  well on flutes and clarinets, but not on oboes and bassoons.

Wood-wind players cannot manage extremely long sustained
passages, as they are compelled to take breath; care must be
taken therefore to give them a little rest from time to time. This
is unnecessary in the case of string players.

In the endeavour to characterise the timbre of each instrument
typical of the four families, from a psychological point of view, I
do not hesitate to make the following general remarks which apply
generally to the middle and upper registers of each instrument:

• a) Flute. — Cold in quality, specially suitable, in the major key, to
  melodies of light and graceful character; in the minor key, to
  slight touches of transient sorrow.
• b) Oboe. — Artless and gay in the major, pathetic and sad in
  the minor.
• c) Clarinet. — Pliable and expressive, suitable, in the major, to
  melodies of a joyful or contemplative character, or to outbursts of
  mirth; in the minor, to sad and reflective melodies or impassioned
  and dramatic passages.
• d) Bassoon. — In the major, an atmosphere of senile mockery;
  a sad, ailing quality in the minor.

In the extreme registers these instruments convey the following
impressions to my mind:

     

	Low register	Very high register
a) Flute —	Dull, cold	Brilliant
b) Oboe —	Wild	Hard, dry
c) Clarinet —	Ringing, threatening	Piercing
d) Bassoon —	Sinister	Tense

Note. It is true that no mood or frame of mind, whether it be joyful or sad,
meditative or lively, careless or reflective, mocking or distressed can be aroused
by one single isolated timbre; it depends more upon the general melodic line,
the harmony, rhythm, and dynamic shades of expression, upon the whole formation
of a given piece of music. The choice of instruments and timbre to
be adopted depends on the position which melody and harmony occupy in the
seven-octave scale of the orchestra; for example, a melody of light character
in the tenor register could not be given to the flutes, or a sad, plaintive phrase
in the high soprano register confided to the bassoons. But the ease with which
tone colour can be adapted to expression must not be forgotten, and in the
first of these two cases it may be conceded that the mocking character of the
bassoon could easily and quite naturally assume a light-hearted aspect, and

in the second case, that the slightly melancholy timbre of the flute is somewhat
related to the feeling of sorrow and distress with which the passage is
to be permeated. The case of a melody coinciding in character with the instrument
on which it is played is of special importance, as the effect produced
cannot fail to be successful. There are also moments when a composer's
artistic feeling prompts him to employ instruments, the character of which is
at variance with the written melody (for eccentric, grotesque effects, etc.).

The following remarks illustrate the characteristics, timbre, and
employment of special instruments:

The duty of the piccolo and small clarinet is, principally, to
extend the range of the ordinary flute and clarinet in the high
register. The whistling, piercing quality of the piccolo in its highest
compass is extraordinarily powerful, but does not lend itself to
more moderate shades of expression. The small clarinet in its
highest register is more penetrating than the ordinary clarinet.
The low and middle range of the piccolo and small clarinet
correspond to the same register in the normal flute and clarinet,
but the tone is so much weaker that it is of little service in those
regions. The double bassoon extends the range of the ordinary
bassoon in the low register. The characteristics of the bassoon's
low compass are still further accentuated in the corresponding
range of the double bassoon, but the middle and upper registers
of the latter are by no means so useful. The very deep notes of
the double bassoon are remarkably thick and dense in quality,
very powerful in piano passages.

Note. Nowadays, when the limits of the orchestral scale are considerably
extended (up to the high C of the 7th octave, and down to the low C, 16 ft.
contra octave), the piccolo forms an indispensable constituent of the wind-group;
similarly, it is recognised that the double bassoon is capable of supplying
valuable assistance. The small clarinet is rarely employed and only for colour
effects.

The English horn, or alto oboe (oboe in F) is similar in tone
to the ordinary oboe, the listless, dreamy quality of its timbre
being sweet in the extreme. In the low register it is fairly penetrating.
The bass clarinet, though strongly resembling the ordinary
clarinet, is of darker colour in the low register and lacks the
silvery quality in the upper notes; it is incapable of joyful expression.
The bass flute is an instrument seldom used even today;
it possesses the same features as the flute, but it is colder in

colour, and crystalline in the middle and high regions. These
three particular instruments, apart from extending the low registers
of the instruments to which they belong, have their own distinctive
peculiarities of timbre, and are often used in the orchestra, as solo
instruments, clearly exposed.

Note. Of the six special instruments referred to above, the piccolo and
double bassoon were the first to be used in the orchestra; the latter, however,
was neglected after Beethoven's death and did not reappear until towards the
end of the 19th century. The Eng. horn and bass clarinet were employed initially
during the first half of the same century by Berlioz, Meyerbeer, and others,
and for some time retained their position as extras, to become, later on,
permanent orchestral factors, first in the theatre, then in the concert room.
Very few attempts have been made to introduce the small clarinet into the
orchestra (Berlioz etc.); this instrument together with the bass flute is used
in my opera-ballet Mlada (1892), and also in my most recent compositions,
The Christmas Night, and Sadko; the bass flute will also be found in The
Legend of the Invisible City of Kitesh, and in the revised version of "Ivan the
Terrible".

Of late years the habit of muting the wood-wind has come into
fashion. This is done by inserting a soft pad, or a piece of rolled-up
cloth into the bell of the instrument. Mutes deaden the tone of
oboes, Eng. horns, and bassoons to such an extent that it is possible
for these instruments to attain the extreme limit of pianissimo
playing. The muting of clarinets is unnecessary, as they can play
quite softly enough without artificial means. It has not yet been
discovered how to mute the flutes; such a discovery would render
great service to the piccolo. The lowest note on the bassoon,
and on the oboe and Eng. horn
are impossible when the instruments are muted. Mutes have no
effect in the highest register of wind instruments.

Brass.

The formation of the group of brass instruments, like that of the
wood-wind is not absolutely uniform, and varies in different scores.
The brass group may be divided into three general classes corresponding
to those of the wood-wind (in pair's, in three's, and in
four's).

     

Group corresponding to the wood-wind in pair's	Group corresponding to the wood-wind in three's	Group corresponding to the wood-wind in four's
2 Trumpets I, II.	3 Trumpets I, II, III. (III — Alto trumpet or:    [  2 Cornets I, II.  2 Trumpets I, II.	(II — Small trumpet). 3 Trumpets I, II, III. (III — Alto trumpet or Bass trumpet.
4 Horns I, II, III, IV.	4 Horns I, II, III, IV.	6 or 8 Horns I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII.
3 Trombones.	3 Trombones I, II, III.	3 Trombones I, II, III.
1 Tuba.	1 Tuba [2].	1 Tuba.

The directions are the same as in the preceding table for woodwind.
It is evident that in all three classes the formation may
vary as the composer wishes. In music for the theatre or concert
room page after page may be written without the use of trumpets,
trombones and tuba, or some instrument may be introduced, temporarily
as an extra. In the above table I have given the most
typical formations, and those which are the most common at the
present day.

Note I. Besides the instruments given above, Richard Wagner used some
others in The Ring, notably the quartet of tenor and bass tubas, and a contrabass
trombone. Sometimes these additions weigh too heavily on the other
groups, and at other times they render the rest of the brass ineffective. For
this reason composers have doubtless refrained from employing such instruments,
and Wagner himself did not include them in the score of Parsifal. Some
present-day composers (Richard Strauss, Scriabine) write for as many as five
trumpets.

Note II. From the middle of the 19th century onward the natural brass
disappeared from the orchestra, giving place to valve instruments. In my second
opera, The May Night I used natural horns and trumpets, changing the keys,
and writing the best notes "stopped"; this was purposely done for practise.

Though far less flexible than the wood-wind, brass instruments
heighten the effect of other orchestral groups by their powerful
resonance. Trumpets, trombones, and tubas are about equal in

strength; cornets have not quite the same force; horns, in forte
passages, are about one half as strong, but piano, they have
the same weight as other brass instruments played softly. To
obtain an equal balance, therefore, the marks of expression in the
horns should be one degree stronger than in the rest of the brass;
if the trumpets and trombones play pp, the horns should be
marked p. On the other hand, to obtain a proper balance in
forte passages, two horns are needed to one trumpet or one
trombone.

Brass instruments are so similar in range and timbre that the
discussion of register is unnecessary. As a general rule quality
becomes more brilliant as the higher register is approached, and
vice versa, with a decrease in tone. Played pp the resonance is
sweet; played ff the tone is hard and "crackling". Brass instruments
possess a remarkable capacity for swelling from pianissimo
to fortissimo, and reducing the tone inversely, the sf > p effect
being excellent.

The following remarks as to character and tone quality may be added:

          

a)	1. Trumpets (B♭ — A). Clear and fairly penetrating in tone, stirring and rousing in forte passages; in piano phrases the high notes are full and silvery, the low notes troubled, as though threatening danger. 2. Alto trumpet (in F). An instrument of my own invention, first used by me in the opera-ballet Mlada. In the deep register (notes 2 to 3 in the trumpet scale) it possesses a fuller, clearer, and finer tone. Two ordinary trumpets with an alto trumpet produce greater smoothness and equality in resonance than three ordinary trumpets. Satisfied with the beauty and usefulness of the alto trumpet, I have consistently written for it in my later works, combined with wood-wind in three's.
Note. To obviate the difficulty of using the alto trumpet in ordinary theatres and some concert rooms, I have not brought into play the last four notes of its lowest register or their neighbouring chromatics; by this means the alto trumpet part may be played by an ordinary trumpet in B♭ or A.
	3. Small trumpet (in E♭ — D). Invented by me and used for the first time in Mlada to realise the very high
trumpet notes without difficulty. In tonality and range the instrument is similar to the soprano cornet in a military band.
Note. The small trumpet, (B♭ — A) sounding an octave higher than the ordinary trumpet has not yet appeared in musical literature.
b)	Cornets (in B♭ — A). Possessing a quality of tone similar to the trumpet, but softer and weaker. It is a beautiful instrument though rarely employed today in theatre or concert room. Expert players can imitate the cornet tone on the trumpet, and vice versa.
c)	Horn (in F). The tone of this instrument is soft, poetical, and full of beauty. In the lower register it is dark and brilliant; round and full in the upper. The middle notes resemble those of the bassoon and the two instruments blend well together. The horn, therefore, serves as a link between the brass and wood-wind. In spite of valves the horn has but little mobility and would seem to produce its tone in a languid and lazy manner.
d)	Trombone. Dark and threatening in the deepest register, brilliant and triumphant in the high compass. The piano is full but somewhat heavy, the forte powerful and sonorous. Valve trombones are more mobile than slide trombones, but the latter are certainly to be preferred as regards nobility and equality of sound, the more so from the fact that these instruments are rarely required to perform quick passages, owing to the special character of their tone.
e)	Tuba. Thick and rough in quality, less characteristic than the trombone, but valuable for the strength and beauty of its low notes. Like the double bass and double bassoon, the tuba is eminently useful for doubling, an octave lower, the bass of the group to which it belongs. Thanks to its valves, the tuba is fairly flexible.

The group of brass instruments, though uniform in resonance
throughout its constituent parts, is not so well adapted to expressive
playing (in the exact sense of the word) as the wood-wind group.
Nevertheless, a scope of greatest expression may be distinguished

Table C. Brass group.
These instruments give all chromatic intervals.

Natural sounds are given in white notes. The upper lines indicate the scope of greatest expression.
* The 7th natural harmonic is everywhere omitted as useless; the same in the horns, the notes 11, 13, 14 and 15.
** The bnatural of the octave — 1 does not exist on the trombone.

in the middle registers. In company with the piccolo and double
bassoon it is not given to the small trumpet (E♭ — D) and tuba
to play with any great amount of expression. The rapid and
rhythmical repetition of a note by single tonguing is possible to
all members of the brass, but double tonguing can only be done
on instruments with a small mouth-piece, trumpets and cornets.
These two instruments can execute rapid tremolando without difficulty.
The remarks on breathing, in the section devoted to the
wood-wind, apply with equal force to the brass.

The use of stopped notes and mutes alters the character of
brass tone. Stopped notes can only be employed on trumpets,
cornets and horns; the shape of trombones and tubas prevents
the hand from being inserted into the bell. Though mutes are
applied indiscriminately to all brass instruments in the orchestra,
tubas rarely possess them. Stopped and muted notes are similar
in quality. On the trumpet, muting a note produces a better tone
than stopping it.

In the horn both methods are employed; single notes are stopped
in short phrases, muted in longer ones. I do not propose to describe
the difference between the two operations in detail, and will leave
the reader to acquire the knowledge for himself, and to form an
opinion as to its importance from his own personal observation.
Sufficient to say that the tone is deadened by both methods,
assuming a wild "crackling" character in forte passages, tender and
dull in piano. Resonance is greatly reduced, the silvery tone of the
instrument is lost and a timbre resembling that of the oboe and
Eng. horn is approached. Stopped notes (con sordino) are marked
+ underneath the note, sometimes followed by O, denoting the
resumption of open sounds, senza sordini. Brass instruments, when
muted, produce an effect of distance.