University of Virginia Library

Chapter IV.
COMPOSITION OF THE ORCHESTRA.

Different ways of orchestrating the same music.

There are times when the general tone, character and atmosphere
of a passage, or a given moment in an orchestral work point
to one, and only one particular manner of scoring. The following
simple example will serve for explanation. Take a short phrase
where a flourish or fanfare call is given out above a tremolando
accompaniment, with or without change in harmony. There is no
doubt that any orchestrator would assign the tremolo to the strings
and the fanfare to a trumpet, never vice versa. But taking this for
granted, the composer or orchestrator may still be left in doubt.
Is the fanfare flourish suitable to the range of a trumpet? Should
it be written for two or three trumpets in unison, or doubled by
other instruments? Can any of these methods be employed without
damaging the musical meaning? These are questions which I shall
endeavour to answer.

If the phrase is too low in register for the trumpets it should
be given to the horns (instruments allied to the trumpet); if the
phrase is too high it may be entrusted to the oboes and clarinets
in unison, this combination possessing the closest resemblance
to the trumpet tone both in character and power. The question
whether one trumpet or two should be employed must be decided
by the degree of power to be vested in the given passage. If a
big sonorous effect is required the instruments may be doubled,
tripled, or even multiplied by four; in the opposite case one solo
brass instrument, or two of the wood-wind will suffice (1 Ob. + 1 Cl.).
The question whether the tremolo in the strings should be supported

by sustained harmony in the wood-wind depends upon the purpose
in view. A composer realises his intentions beforehand, others
who orchestrate his music can only proceed by conjecture. Should
the composer desire to establish a strongly-marked difference between
the harmonic basis and the melodic outline it is better not to
employ wood-wind harmony, but to obtain proper balance of tone
by carefully distributing his dynamic marks of expression, pp, p,
f and ff. If, on the contrary, the composer desires a full round
tone as harmonic basis and less show of brilliance in the harmonic
parts, the use of harmony in the wood-wind is to be recommended.
The following may serve as a guide to the scoring of wood-wind
chords: the harmonic basis should differ from the melody not only
in fullness and intensity of tone, but also in colour. If the fanfare
figure is allotted to the brass (trumpets or horns) the harmony should
be given to the wood-wind; if the phrase is given to the wood-wind
(oboes and clarinets) the harmony should be entrusted to the horns.
To solve all these questions successfully a composer must have full
knowledge of the purpose he has in view, and those who orchestrate
his work should be permeated with his intentions. Here the question
arises, what should those intentions be? This is a more difficult
subject.

The aim of a composer is closely allied to the form of his
work, to the aesthetic meaning of its every moment and phrase
considered apart, and in relation to the composition as a whole.
The choice of an orchestral scheme depends on the musical matter,
the colouring of preceding and subsequent passages. It is important
to determine whether a given passage is a complement
to or a contrast with what goes before and comes after, whether
it forms a climax or merely a step in the general march of musical
thought. It would be impossible to examine all such possible
types of relationship, or to consider the rôle played by each passage
quoted in the present work. The reader is therefore advised not
to pay too much attention to the examples given, but to study them
and their bearing on the context in their proper place in the full
scores. Nevertheless I shall touch upon a few of these points in
the course of the following outline. To begin with, young and
inexperienced composers do not always possess a clear idea of
what they wish to do. They can improve in this direction by reading

good scores and by repeatedly listening to an orchestra, provided
they concentrate the mind to the fullest possible extent. The search
after extravagant and daring effects in orchestration is quite a
different thing from mere caprice; the will to achieve is not sufficient;
there are certain things which should not be achieved.

The simplest musical ideas, melodic phrases in unison and
octaves, or repeated throughout several octaves, chords, of which
no single part has any melodic meaning are scored in various
ways according to register, dynamic effect and the quality of
expression or tone colour that may be desired. In many cases,
one idea will be orchestrated in a different way every time it
recurs. Later on I shall frequently touch upon this more complicated
question.

Examples:

• * Snegourotchka 58;65 and before 58 — sustained note in unison.

There are fewer possible ways of scoring more complex musical
ideas, harmonico-melodic phrases, polyphonic designs etc.; sometimes
there are but two methods to be followed, for each of the primary
elements in music, melody, harmony, and counterpoint possesses
its own special requirements, regulating the choice of instruments
and tone colour. The most complicated musical ideas sometimes
admit of only one manner of scoring, with a few hardly noticeable
variations in detail. To the following example, very simple in
structure I add an alternative method of scoring:

Example:

• No.175. Vera Scheloga, before 35 — a) actual orchestration,
  * b) — another method.

It is obvious that the method b) will produce satisfactory tone.
But a 3rd and 4th way of scoring would be less successful, and a
continuation of this process would soon lead to the ridiculous. For
instance if the chords were given to the brass the whole passage
would sound heavy, and the soprano recitative in the low and
middle register would be overpowered. If the F sharp in the

double basses were played arco by 'cellos and basses together it
would sound clumsy, if it were given to the bassoons a comic
effect would be produced, and if played by the brass it would
sound rough and coarse, etc....

The object of scoring the same musical phrase in different ways
is to obtain variety either in tone colour or resonance. In each
case the composer may resort to the inversion of the normal order
of instruments, duplication of parts, or the two processes in combination.
The first of these is not always feasible. In the preceding
sections of the book I have tried to explain the characteristics of
each instrument and the part which each group of instruments
plays in the orchestra. Moreover many methods of doubling are to be
avoided; these I have mentioned, while there are also some
instruments which cannot be combined owing to the great difference
in their peculiarities. Therefore, as regards the general composition
of the orchestra, the student should be guided by the general
principles laid down in the earlier stages of the present work.

The best means of orchestrating the same musical idea in various
ways is by the adaptation of the musical matter. This can be
done by the following operations: a) complete or partial transference
into other octaves; b) repetition in a different key; c) extension
of the whole range by the addition of octaves to the upper and
lower parts; d) alteration of details (the most frequent method);
e) variation of the general dynamic scheme, e. g. repeating a phrase
piano, which has already been played forte.

These operations are always successful in producing variety of
orchestral colour.

Examples:

• No. 176, 177. Russian Easter Fête A and C.
• The Christmas Night 158 and 179.
• No. 178-181. The Tsar's Bride, Overture — beginning, 1, 2, 7.
• Sadko 99-101 and 305-307(cf. Ex. 289, 290, and 75).
• No. 182-186. Tsar Saltan 14, 17, 26, 28, 34.
• No.187-189. " 181, 246, 220.
• * No. 190-191. Ivan the Terrible, Overture 5 and 12.
• Spanish Capriccio — compare 1st and 3rd movement.

---

101




• * No. 192-195. Shéhérazade, 1st movement — beginning of the allegro A, E, M.
• " 3rd movement — beginning A, I.
• " 3rd " E, G, O.
• * No. 196 - 198. Legend of Kitesh 55, 56, 62.
• * No. 199-201. " " 68, 70, 84.
  (Cf. also Ex. 213, 214. Legend of Kitesh 294 and 312.)
• * No. 202-203. The Golden Cockerel 229, 233.

The process of scoring the same or similar ideas in different
ways is the source of numerous musical operations, crescendo, diminuendo,
interchange of tone qualities, variation of tone colour etc.,
and incidentally throws new light upon the fundamental composition
of the orchestra.

Full Tutti.

The word tutti generally means the simultaneous use of all
instruments, but the word "all" is used relatively, and it must not
be inferred that every single instrument must necessarily be employed
to form a tutti. In order to simplify the following illustrations
I will divide the word into two classes, full tutti and partial tutti,
— independently of whether the orchestra is constructed in pairs,
in three's, or a larger number of instruments. I call full tutti the
combination of all melodic groups, strings, wind, and brass. By
partial tutti I mean passages in which the brass group only
takes part, whether two horns or two trumpets participate alone, or
whether two horns are combined with one or three trombones,
without tuba, trumpets, or the two remaining horns, etc.:

 

[

4 Horns, . . . . . . . .

or

2 Horns, 2 Trumpets, . . . . .

or

2 Horns . . . . . . 3 Trombones

etc.].

In both species of tutti full wood-wind may be employed or not,
according to the register and musical context of the passage. For
instance, in the extreme high register it may be essential to include
the piccolo; in the low register flutes will be unnecessary, and yet
the passage can still be called tutti. The inclusion of kettle-drums,
harp, and other instruments of little sustaining power, as of the
percussion in general, does not come under discussion.

The variety of orchestral operations increases with the number
of instruments forming a tutti, in tact, so great does it become
that it is impossible to consider all combinations. I can only give
a few examples of full and partial tutti, and leave the reader to
draw his own conclusions. Some of these examples fall under the
double heading of full and partial tutti, and the student is reminded
that the tutti, is used essentially in forte and fortissimo, rarely in
pianissimo and piano passages.

Examples:

• Snegourotchka 61 and 62 — Partial and full Tutti.
• " 231 — Partial Tutti, without the trumpets (cf. Ex.8).
• No. 204. Snegourotchka 216 — Full Tutti.
• " 325-326 — Full Tutti and chorus(cf.Ex.8).
• Sadko 3, 223, 239 — Full Tutti (cf. Ex. 86).
• No. 205-206. Sadko 173, 177 — Full Tutti with chorus, differently scored.
• No. 207-208. The Christmas Night 184 and 186 — Full Tutti, orchestrated in different ways, with and without chorus.
• * The Tsar's Bride, Overture 1, 2, 7 — Full and partial Tutti (cf. Ex. 179-181).
• * " " 141 — Full Tutti.
• * " " 177 — " ".
• Pan Voyevoda 186 and 188 Full Tutti.
• * Antar 65 — (cf. Ex. 32).
• * No.209. Shéhérazade, 3rd movement M; cf. also 1st movement
  A, E, H; 2nd movement K, P, R; 3rd movement G,
  O; 4th movement G, P, W and farther on to Y (No. 193, 194, 19, 66, 77).
• * Spanish Capriccio B, F, J, P, V, X-Z (Cf. Ex. 3).
• * Russian Easter Fête F, J, before L, Y, up to the end.
• * 3rd Symphony, 1st movement D, R-T, X; 2nd movement A, E; 4th movement A, H, S.
• * Sadko, Symphonic tableau 20-24.
• * Mlada, Act III 12 (cf. Ex.258).
• * For examples of Tutti chords, see special Tables at the end of Vol. II.

Tutti in the wind.

In many cases the wood-wind and brass groups can form a tutti
by themselves for periods of varying length. Sometimes this is
effected by the wood-wind alone, but more frequently with the
support of horns. At other times the horns are found alone without
the wood-wind, and, lastly, a tutti may be comprised of instruments
of each group in varying numbers. The addition of kettle-drums
and the rest of the percussion is quite common and constitutes what
the Germans call "Janitscharenmusik", or Turkish infantry music.
Violoncellos and double basses playing more or less important
pizz. notes are often added to wood-wind instruments (tutti),
likewise the remainder of the strings and the harps; this process
renders the sustained notes in the wood-wind more distinct. Tutti
passages in wood-wind and horns do not produce any great amount of
power in forte passages, but, on the other hand tutti in the brass
groups alone may attain an extraordinary volume of tone. In the
following examples the formation of pedal notes by strings or woodind
in no way alters the general character of the Tutti:

Examples:

• No. 210-211. Snegourotchka 149, 151(compare)
• Tsar Saltan 14, 17, 26 (cf. Ex. 182-184).
• Pan Voyevoda 57, 186, 262.
• No. 212. Ivan the Terrible, Act II 19; cf. also Act. III 5.
• * No. 213-214. Legend of Kitesh 294, 312 (compare).
• * No. 215. The Golden Cockerel 116; cf. also 82 and 84.
• * Antar 37 (cf. Ex. 65).

Tutti pizzicato.

The quartet of strings (pizzicato), reinforced occasionally by
the harp and piano, may, in certain cases constitute a particular
kind of tutti, which can only attain any great degree of strength
by support from the wood-wind. Without this support it is of medium
power, though still fairly brilliant in quality.

Examples:

• No. 216. Snegourotchka, before 128; cf. also 153 and before 305.
• * No. 217. Russian Easter Fête K; cf. also U and V.
• * Spanish Capriccio A, C, before S, before P; cf. also O
  (Ex. 56).
• Mlada, Act II 15.
• * Sadko 220 (cf. Ex. 295).
• * Legend of Kitesh 101.
• * No.218. The May Night, Act I, The Mayor's Song — combination
  of strings, arco and pizz.

Tutti in one, two and three parts.

It often happens that a moderately full orchestral ensemble executes
a passage composed of one or two harmonic parts, in unison
or in octaves. Such melodic phrases call for more or less simple
orchestration with the usual doubling of parts, or, in ornamental
writing, admit of contrast in tone colouring, occasionally with the
addition of sustained notes.

Examples:

• Snegourotchka, before 152, 174, 176.
• The Tsar's Bride 120-121(cf. Ex. 63).
• The Golden Cockerel 215.
• * No.219-221. Legend of Kitesh 142, 144, 147 — 3 part
  Tutti, with different scoring.
• * Legend of Kitesh 138, 139 — Tutti in one part.

Soli in the strings.

Although, in any orchestral piece, numerous instances are to be
found of melodies and phrases entrusted to a solo wind instrument
(generally the first of each group, wood-wind or brass), solos for
stringed instruments, on the other hand, are extremely rare. Whilst
the 1st violin and 1st 'cello are fairly frequently used in this manner,
the solo viola is seldom found, and a solo on the double bass is
practically unknown. Phrases demanding particular individuality

of expression are entrusted to solo instruments; likewise passages
that require extraordinary technique, beyond the scope of the
orchestral rank and file. The comparatively weak tone of the solo
instrument necessitates light, transparent accompaniment. Difficult
virtuoso solos should not be written, as they attract too much attention
to a particular instrument. Solo stringed instruments are also
used when vigourous expression and technical facility are not
required, but simply in order to obtain that singular difference in
colour which exists between a solo stringed instrument and strings
in unison. Two solo instruments can be coupled together, e. g.
2 Violins soli, etc. and in very rare cases a quartet of solo strings
may be employed.

Examples:
Violin solo:

• No.222-223. Snegourotchka 54, 275.
• The May Night, pp. 64-78.
• Mlada, Act I 52; Act III, before 19.
• * A Fairy Tale W.
• * Shéhérazade, 1st movement C, G; also the passages at the
  start of each movement.
• * Spanish Capriccio H, K, R, and the cadence on p. 38.
• * No.224. Legend of Kitesh 310 — Vn. solo, on harmonic basis
  of strings sul ponticello and wood-wind.
• Snegourotchka 274, 279 — 2 Vns soli (cf. Ex. 9).

Viola solo:

• No.225. Snegourotchka 212.
• Sadko 137.
• * No.226. The Golden Cockerel 163; cf. also 174, 177.

Violoncello solo:

• Snegourotchka 187 (cf. Ex. 102).
• The Christmas Night, before 29, 130.
• Mlada, Act III 36.
• * The Golden Cockerel 177, 180 (cf. Ex. 229).

Double bass solo:

• * No.227. Mlada, Act II 10-12 — a special instance where the
  first string is tuned down.

Solo quartet:

• The Christmas Night 222 — Vn., Viola, 'Cello, D. bass.
• * No.228. Tsar Saltan 248 — Vn. I, Vn. II, Viola, 'Cello.

* The case of a solo stringed instrument doubled by the woodwind
in unison must not be forgotten. The object is to attain
great purity and abundance of tone, without impairing the timbre
of the solo instrument (especially in the high and low registers),
or to produce a certain highly-coloured effect.

Examples:

• * Mlada, Act 11 52 — Vn. + Fl.; Act IV 31 — Viol. + Fl. + Harp.
• * The Christmas Night 212 — 2 Vns + Fl. + Small Cl. (cf. Ex. 153).
• * Pan Voyevoda 67 — 2 Vns + 2 Ob.; 2 Violas + 2 Cl.
• * Legend of Kitesh 306 — Bass cl. + C-fag. (cf. Ex. 10).
• " " " 309 — Vn. + Fl.
• * No. 229. The Golden Cockerel 179 — Vn. + Picc.; 'Cello + Bass cl.

* As shown in Chap. II, 2 Vns soli or Violin solo + Fl. (Picc.) are
often sufficient to double a melody in the upper register.

Examples:

• Sadko 207 — cf. Chap. II, p. 42 and Ex. 24.
• * No.230. Russian Easter Fête, p. 32-2 Solo violins (in harmonics).
• * No.231. Legend of Kitesh 297 — 2 Solo violins + Picc.

Limits of orchestral range.

It is seldom that the entire orchestral conception is centred in
the upper register of the orchestra (the 5th and 6th octaves), still
more rarely is it focussed wholly in the lowest range (octaves 1
and —1) where the proximity of harmonic intervals creates a bad
effect. In the first case the flutes and piccolo should be used along
with the upper notes of the violins, soli or divisi; in the second

case the double bassoon and the low notes of the bassoons, bass
clarinet, horns, trombones and tuba are brought into play. The
first method gives brilliant colour, the second combination is dark
and gloomy. The contrary would be fundamentally impossible.

Examples:

       

Pan Voyevoda 122, 137	} low register.
Servilia 168, 8th bar. (cf. Ex. 62)
No.232. The Golden Cockerel 220; cf. also 218, 219
* Snegourotchka, before 25	} high register.
* Legend of Kitesh, before 34
* No.233. The Golden Cockerel 133, 117
* No.234. Shéhérazade, 2nd movement pp. 59-62

The upper and lower parts of a passage can seldom be widely
separated without the intermediate octaves being filled in, for this
is contrary to the first principles of proper distribution of chords.
Nevertheless the unusual resonance thus produced serves for strange
and grotesque effects. In the first of the following examples the
piccolo figure doubled by the harp and the sparkling notes of the
glockenspiel is set about four octaves apart from the bass, which
is assigned to a single Double bass and Tuba. But in the 3rd octave,
the augmented fourths and diminished fifths in the two flutes help
to fill up the intermediate space and lessen the distance between
the two extreme parts, thus forming some sort of link between
them. The general effect is fanciful.

Examples:

• No.235. Snegourotchka 255.
• * No.236. " 315, 5th and 6th bars.
• " 274 (cf. Ex. 9).
• A Fairy Tale A.
• The Golden Cockerel 179, 9th bar. (cf. Ex. 229).

Transference of passages and phrases.

A phrase or a figure is often transferred from one instrument to
another. In order to connect the phrases on each instrument in

the best possible way, the last note of each part is made to coincide
with the first note of the following one. This method is used for
passages the range of which is too wide to be performed on any
one instrument, or when it is desired to divide a phrase into two
different timbres.

Examples:

• * Snegourotchka 137 — The melody is transferred from the violins
  to the flute and clarinet (cf. Ex. 28).
• * " before 191 — Solo violin-Solo 'cello.
• Pan Voyevoda 57 — Trombones — Trumpets; Horn — Ob. + Cl.

A similar operation is used in scoring passages covering the
entire orchestral scale, or a great portion of it. When one instrument
is on the point of completing its allotted part, another instrument
takes up the passage, starting on one or two notes common
to both parts, and so on. This division must be carried out to
ensure the balance of the whole passage.

Examples:

• Snegourotchka 36, 38, 131 — Strings.
• The Tsar's Bride 190 — Wood-wind.
• Sadko 72 — Strings (cf. Ex. 112).
• " 223 — Strings.
• The Christmas Night, before 180 — Strings, wind and chorus
  (cf. Ex. 132).
• * No. 237. The Christmas Night, before 181 — String figure.
• * Servilia 111 — Strings (cf. Ex. 88).
• " 29, 5th bar. — Ob. — Fl.; Cl. — Bass cl., Fag.
• No.238. The Golden Cockerel, before 9 — Wood-wind.
• * " " 5 — Fag. — Eng. horn ( + 'Cellos
  pizz.).

Chords of different tone quality used alternately.

1. The most usual practice is to employ chords on different groups
of instruments alternately. In dealing with chords in different
registers care should be taken that the progression of parts, though
broken in passing from one group to another, remains as regular

as if there were no leap from octave to octave; this applies specially
to chromatic passages in order to avoid false relation.

Examples:

• No.239. Ivan the Terrible, Act II 29.
• No.240-241. The Tsar's Bride 123, before 124.
• * No. 242-243. " " 178, 179.

* Note. The rules regulating progression of parts may sometimes be ignored,
when extreme contrast of timbre between two adjacent chords is intended.

Examples:

• * Shéhérazade, 8th bar from the beginning, (the chromatic progression at
  the 12th bar is undertaken by the same instruments, the 2nd cl. is therefore
  placed above the first in the opening) — cf. Ex. 109.
• * The Christmas Night, opening (cf. Ex. 106).

2. Another excellent method consists in transferring the same
chord or its inversion from one orchestral group to another. This
operation demands perfect balance in progression of parts as well
as register. The first group strikes a chord of short value, the
other group takes possession of it simultaneously in the same
position and distribution, either in the same octave or in another.
The dynamic gradations of tone need not necessarily be the same
in both groups.

Examples:

• Ivan the Terrible, commencement of the overture (cf. Ex. 85).
• No.244. Snegourotchka 140.

Amplification and elimination of tone qualities.

The operation which consists in contrasting the resonance of
two different groups (* or the different timbres of one and the same
group), either in sustained notes or chords, transforms a simple
into a complex timbre, suddenly, or by degrees. It is used in
establishing a crescendo. While the first group effects the crescendo
gradually, the second group enters piano or pianissimo, and attains
its crescendo more rapidly. The whole process is thereby rendered
more tense as the timbre changes. The converse operation — the
transition from a complex to a simple timbre, by the suppression
of one of the groups, belongs essentially to the diminuendo.

Examples:

• No.245. Snegourotchka 313.
• " 140 (cf. Ex. 244).
• A Fairy Tale V.
• Shéhérazade, 2nd movement D (cf. Ex. 74).
• * " 4th movement p. 221.
• No.246. Servilia 228; cf. also 44.
• The Christmas Night 165 (cf. Ex.143).
• No.247. The Tsar's Bride, before 205.
• * No.248. Russian Easter Fête D.
• * No.249-250. Legend of Kitesh 5, 162.

Repetition of phrases, imitation, echo.

As regards choice of timbre, phrases in imitation are subject to
the law of register. When a phrase is imitated in the upper register
it should be given to an instrument of higher range and vice versa.
If this rule is ignored an unnatural effect will be produced, as when
the clarinet in its upper range replies to the oboe in the lower
compass etc. The same rule must be followed in dealing with
phrases, actually different, but similar in character; repeated phrases
of different character should be scored in a manner most suitable
to each.

Examples:

• The Tsar's Bride 157, 161.
• Legend of Kitesh 40-41.
• * No. 251. Spanish Capriccio S.

In echo phrases, that is to say imitation entailing not only
decrease in volume of tone but also an effect of distance, the
second instrument should be weaker than the first, but the two
should possess some sort of affinity. An echo given to muted
brass following the same phrase not muted produces this distant
effect. Muted trumpets are eminently suited to echo a theme in
the oboes; flutes also may imitate clarinets and oboes successfully.
A wood-wind instrument cannot be used to echo the strings, or

vice versa, on account of the dissimilarity in timbre. Imitation in
octaves (with a decrease in resonance) creates an effect resembling
an echo.

Examples:

• Ivan the Terrible, Act III 3.
• No. 252. Sadko 264.
• * Spanish Capriccio E. — This example is not precisely an
  echo but resembles one in character (c. Ex. 44).
• * Shéhérazade, 4th movement before O.

Sforzando-piano and piano-sforzando chords.

Besides the natural dynamic process of obtaining these marks
of expression, a process which depends upon the player, they
may also be produced by artificial means of orchestration.

a) At the moment when the wood-wind begins a piano chord,
the strings attack it sforzando, a compound chord for preference,
either arco or pizz. In the opposite case the sf in the strings
must occur at the end of the wood-wind chord. The first method
is also employed for a sf-dim., and the second for a cresc.-sf.
effect.

b) It is not so effective, and therefore less frequent to give the
notes of sustained value to the strings, and the short chords to
the wood-wind. In such cases the tenuto chord is played tremolando
on the strings.

Examples:

• Vera Scheloga, before 35, 38, 10th bar.
• * No. 253. Legend of Kitesh, before 15-16
• * Shéhérazade, 2nd movement, P, 14th bar.

Method of emphasising certain notes and chords.

In order to stress or emphasise a certain note or chord, besides
the marks of expression > and sf, chords of 2, 3, and 4 notes
can be inserted into the melodic progression by the instruments
of the string quartet, each playing a single note; short notes in
the wood-wind may also be used as well as a chain of three or

four grace notes, in the form of a scale, either in strings or woodwind.
These unstressed notes (anacrusis), generally written very
small, form a kind of upward glide, the downward direction being
less common. As a rule they are connected to the main note by
a slur. In the strings they should not lead up to chords of three
or four notes, as this would be awkward for the bow.

Examples:

• No. 254. The Tsar's Bride 142 — Anacrusis in the strings.
• * No. 255. Shéhérazade, 2nd movement C — Short pizz. chords.
• * " " " P — Short wind chords (cf. Ex. 19).

Crescendo and diminuendo.

Short crescendi and diminuendi are generally produced by natural
dynamic means; when prolonged, they are obtained by this
method combined with other orchestral devices. After the strings,
the brass is the group most facile in producing dynamic shades
of expression, glorifying crescendo chords into the most brilliant
sforzando climaxes. Clarinets specialise in diminuendo effects and
are capable of decreasing their tone to a breath (morendo). Prolonged
orchestral crescendi are obtained by the gradual addition
of other instruments in the following order: strings, wood-wind,
brass. Diminuendo effects are accomplished by the elimination
of the instruments in the reverse order (brass, wood-wind, strings).
The scope of this work does not lend itself to the quotation of
prolonged crescendo and diminuendo passages. The reader is referred,
therefore, to the full scores:

• * Shéhérazade, pp. 5-7, 92-96, 192-200.
• * Antar 6, 51.
• * The Christmas Night 183.
• * Sadko 165-166.
• * The Tsar's Bride 80-81.

Many examples of shorter crescendi and diminuendi will be
found in Vol. II.

Diverging and converging progressions.

In the majority of cases, diverging and converging progressions
simply consist in the gradual ascent of the three upper parts, with
the bass descending. The distance separating the bass from the
other parts is trifling at first, and grows by degrees. On the other
hand, in converging progressions, the three upper parts, at first so
far distant from the bass, gradually approach it. Sometimes these
progressions involve an increase or a decrease in tone. The
intermediate intervals are filled up by the introduction of fresh
parts as the distance widens, so that the upper parts become
doubled or trebled. In converging progressions the tripled and
doubled parts are simplified, as the duplicating instruments cease
to play. Moreover, if the harmony allows it, the group in the
middle region which remains stationary is the group to be retained,
or else the sustained note which guarantees unity in the operation.
Below, the reader will find double examples of both descriptions.
The first pair represents a diverging progression, 1. piano, in which
the human voice takes part; 2. a purely orchestral crescendo. The
second depicts two similar diverging progressions, firstly a gradual
crescendo, secondly dim., during which the strings become more
and more divided as the wind instruments cease to play. Ex. 258.
accompanies the apparition of Mlada, Ex. 259, its disappearance.
The atmosphere and colouring are weird and fanciful. The third
pair of examples forms instances of converging progressions. In
the first (Ex. 260) Princess Volkhova relates the wonders of the
sea. Then in the middle of a powerful orchestral crescendo the
Sea-King appears (Ex. 261) Both examples include a sustained
stationary chord of the diminished seventh. The handling of such
progressions requires the greatest care.

Examples:

• No. 256-257. The Tsar's Bride 102 and 107.
• No. 258-259. Mlada, Act III 12 and 19.
• No. 260-261. Sadko 105 and 119.
• Sadko 72 (cf. Ex. 112).
• " before 315.

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114




• The Christmas Night, beginning (cf. Ex. 106).
• * No. 262. Antar, end of 3rd movement.

Note. A sustained note between the diverging parts does not
always allow the empty space to be more completely filled up.

Example:

• No. 263. The Golden Cockerel, before 106.

Tone quality as a harmonic force.
Harmonic basis.

Melodic design comprising notes foreign to the harmony, passing
or grace notes, embellishments etc., does not permit that a florid
outline should proceed at the same time with another one, reduced
to essential and fundamental notes:

If, in the above example, the upper part is transposed an octave
lower, the discordant effect produced by the contact of appogiaturas
and fundamental notes will be diminished; the quicker the
passage is played the less harsh the effect will be, and vice versa.
But it would be ill-advised to lay down any hard and fast rule as
to the permissible length of these notes. There is no doubt that
the harmonic notes, the thirds of the fundamental one (E) are
more prominent from their proximity with the notes extraneous
to the harmony. If the number of parts is increased (for instance,
if the melodic figure is in thirds, sixths etc.), the question becomes
still more complicated, since, to the original harmonic scheme,
chords with different root bases are added, producing false relation.

Nevertheless, for the solution of such problems, orchestration
provides an element of the greatest importance: difference of
timbres. The greater the dissimilarity in timbre between the harmonic
basis on the one hand and the melodic design on the
other, the less discordant the notes extraneous to the harmony

will sound. The best example of this is to be found between the
human voice and the orchestra, next comes the difference of
timbres between the groups of strings, wood-wind, plucked strings
and percussion instruments. Less important differences occur
between wood-wind and brass; in these two groups, therefore, the
harmonic basis generally remains an octave removed from the
melodic design, and should be of inferior dynamic power.

Examples of harmonic basis in chords:

• No. 264. Pan Voyevoda, Introduction.
• Legend of Kitesh, Introduction (cf. also Ex. 125 and 140).
• * Mlada, Act III 10.

The harmonic basis may be ornamental in character, in which
case it should move independently of the concurrent melodic design.

Examples:

• * No. 265-266. Tsar Saltan 103-104, 128, 149, 162-165 (cf. below).

Chords the most widely opposed in character may be used on
a simple, stationary harmonic basis, a basis, founded, for example,
on the chord of the tonic or diminished seventh.

Examples:

• No. 267. Legend of Kitesh 326-328 — Wood-wind and harps
  on a string basis.
• No. 268- 269. Kashtcheï the Immortal 33, 43.
• No. 270. Mlada, Act II, before 17, 18, 20.
• No. 271. The Golden Cockerel 125 — Chords of the diminished
  seventh, on arpeggio basis (augmented fifth).

The effect of alternating harmony produced between two melodic
figures, e. g. one transmitting a note, held in abeyance, to
the other, or the simultaneous progression of a figure in augmentation
and diminution etc. becomes comprehensible and pleasant
to the ear when the fundamental sustained harmony is different.

Examples:

• Legend of Kitesh 34, 36, 297 (cf. Ex. 34 and 231).
• No. 272-274. Tsar Saltan 104, 162-165 (cf. also 147-148.
• * Russian Easter Fête, before V.

The whole question as to what is allowed and what forbidden
in the employment of notes extraneous to the harmony is one of
the most difficult in the whole range of composition; the permissible
length of such notes is in no way established. In absence
of artistic feeling, the composer who relies entirely on the
difference between two timbres will often find himself using the
most painful discords. Innovations in this direction in the latest
post-Wagnerian music are often very questionable; they depress
the ear and deaden the musical senses, leading to the unnatural
conclusion that what is good, taken separately, must necessarily
be good in combination.

Artificial effects.

I apply this name to some orchestral operations which are based
on certain defects of hearing and faculty of perception. Having
no wish to specify those that already exist or to foretell those which
may yet be invented, I will mention, in passing, a few which have
been used by me in my own works. To this class belong
glissando scales or arpeggios in the harp, the notes of which do
not correspond with those played simultaneously by other instruments,
but which are used from the fact that long glissandi are
more resonant and brilliant than short ones.

Examples:

• Snegourotchka 325 (cf. Ex. 95).
• No. 275. Pan Voyevoda 128.
• * Shéhérazade, 3rd movement M, 5th bar (cf. Ex. 248).
• * Russian Easter Fête D (cf. Ex. 248).
• * Enharmonic glissando in the strings should also be mentioned.
• No. 276. The Christmas Night 180, 13th bar — 'Cellos glissando.

Use of percussion instruments for rhythm
and colour.

Whenever some portion of the orchestra executes a rhythmic
figure, percussion instruments should always be employed concurrently.
An insignificant and playful rhythm is suitable to the triangle, tambourine,
castanets and side drum, a vigourous and straightforward rhythm
may be given to the bass drum, cymbals and gong. The strokes
on these instruments should almost invariably correspond to the
strong beats of the bar, highly-accented syncopated notes or disconnected
sforzandi. The triangle, side drum and tambourine are capable of
various rhythmic figures. Sometimes the percussion is used separately,
independently of any other group of instruments.

The brass and wood-wind are the two groups which combine the
most satisfactorily with percussion from the standpoint of colour.
The triangle, side drum, and tambourine go best with harmony in
the upper register; cymbals, bass drum and gong with harmony in the
lower. The following are the combinations most generally employed:
tremolo on the triangle and tambourine with trills in wood-wind and
violins; tremolo on the side drum, or cymbals struck with drum
sticks, and sustained chords on trumpets and horns; tremolo on the
bass drum or the gong with chords on trombones or low sustained
notes on 'cellos and double basses. It must not be forgotten that
the bass drum, cymbals, gong and a tremolo on the side drum,
played fortissimo, is sufficient to overpower any orchestral tutti.

* The reader will find instances of the use of percussion instruments
in any full score, and in several examples of the present work.

Examples:

• * Shéhérazade pp. 107-119, also many passages in 4th movement:
• * Antar 40, 43 (cf. Ex. 73, 29).
• * Spanish capriccio P (cf. Ex. 64); the cadences to be studied
  in the 4th movement, where they are accompanied by various percussion
  instruments.
• * Russian Easter Fête K (cf. Ex. 217).
• * The Tsar's Bride 140.
• * Legend of Kitesh 196-197 — "The Battle of Kerjémetz"
• * Pan Voyevoda 71-72.

Economy in orchestral colour.

Neither musical feeling nor the ear itself can stand, for long,
the full resources of the orchestra combined together. The
favourite group of instruments is the strings, then follow in order
the wood-wind, brass, kettle-drums, harps, pizzicato effects, and lastly
the percussion, also, in point of order, triangle, cymbals, big drum,
side drum, tambourine, gong. Further removed stand the celesta,
glockenspiel and xylophone, which instruments, though melodic,
are too characteristic in timbre to be employed over frequently.
The same may be said of the piano and castanets. A quantity of
national instruments not included in the present work may be
incorporated into the orchestra; such are the guitar, the domra,
zither, mandoline, the oriental tambourine, small tambourine etc.
These instruments are employed from time to time for descriptiveaesthetic
purposes.

These instruments are most frequently used in the above-named
order. A group of instruments which has been silent for some
time gains fresh interest upon its reappearance. The trombones,
trumpets and tuba are occasionally tacet for long periods, the
percussion is seldom employed, and practically never all together,
but in single instruments or in two's and three's. In national
dances or music in ballad style, percussion instruments may be
used more freely.

After a long rest the re-entry of the horns, trombones and tuba
should coincide with some characteristic intensity of tone, either
pp or ff; piano and forte re-entries are less successful, while reintroducing
these instruments mezzo-forte or mezzo-piano produces
a colourless and common-place effect. This remark is capable
of wider application. For the same reasons it is not good to
commence or finish any piece of music either mf or mp. The
scope of the musical examples in this work does not permit of
illustrating by quotation the use of economy in orchestral colour,
nor the re-entry of instruments thrown into prominence by prolonged
rests. The reader must examine these questions in full scores.