University of Virginia Library

Chapter III.
HARMONY.

General observations.

The art of orchestration demands a beautiful and well-balanced
distribution of chords forming the harmonic texture. Moreover,
transparence, accuracy and purity in the movement of each part
are essential conditions if satisfactory resonance is to be obtained.
No perfection in resonance can accrue from faulty progression
of parts.

Note. There are people who consider orchestration simply as the art of
selecting instruments and tone qualities, believing that if an orchestral score
does not sound well, it is entirely due to the choice of instruments and timbres.
But unsatisfactory resonance is often solely the outcome of faulty handling of
parts, and such a composition will continue to sound badly whatever choice
of instruments is made. So, on the other hand, it often happens that a passage
in which the chords are properly distributed, and the progression of parts
correctly handled, will sound equally well if played by strings, wood-wind or brass.

The composer should picture to himself the exact harmonic
formation of the piece he intends to orchestrate. If, in his rough
sketch, there exist any uncertainly as to the number or movement
of harmonic parts, he is advised to settle this at once. It is
likewise essential for him to form a clear idea as to the construction
and musical elements of the piece, and to realise the
exact nature and limitations of the themes, phrases and ideas he
is going to employ. Every transition from one order of harmonic
writing to another, from four-part harmony to three, or from five-part
harmony to unison etc., must coincide with the introduction
of a new idea, a fresh theme or phrase; otherwise the orchestrator
will encounter many unforeseen and insurmountable difficulties.

For example, if, during a passage written in four parts a chord
in five-part harmony is introduced, a fresh instrument must needs
be added to play this particular fifth part, and this addition may
easily damage the resonance of the chord in question, and render
the resolution of a discord or the correct progression of parts impossible.

Number of harmonic parts — Duplication.

In the very large majority of cases harmony is written in four
parts; this applies not only to single chords or a succession
of them, but also to the formation of the harmonic basis. Harmony
which at first sight appears to comprise 5, 6, 7 and 8 parts, is
usually only four part harmony with extra parts added. These
additions are nothing more than the duplication in the adjacent
upper octave of one or more of the three upper parts forming the
original harmony, the bass being doubled in the lower octave only.
The following diagrams will explain my meaning:

B. Widely-divided part-writing

Note. In widely-spaced harmony only the soprano and alto parts may be
doubled in octaves. Duplicating the tenor part is to be avoided, as close
writing is thereby produced, and doubling the bass part creates an effect of
heaviness. The bass part should never mix with the others:

Bad:

On account of the distance between the bass and the three other
parts, only partial duplication is possible.

Note. Notes in unison resulting from correct duplication need not be avoided
for although the tone in such cases is not absolutely uniform, the ear will be
satisfied with the correct progression of parts.

Consecutive octaves between the upper parts are not permissible:

Consecutive fifths resulting from the duplication of the three
upper parts moving in chords of sixths are of no importance:

The bass of an inversion of the dominant chord should never
be doubled in any of the upper parts:

 

Good:

Bad:

This applies also to other chords of the seventh and diminished seventh:

 

Bad:

Good:

The rules of harmony concerning sustained and pedal passages
apply with equal force to orchestral writing. As regards passing
and auxiliary notes, echappees, considerable licence is permitted
in rapid passages of different texture:

A certain figure and its essentials, in simplified form, may
proceed concurrently, as in the following example:

Upper and inner pedal notes are more effective on the orchestra
than in pianoforte or chamber music, owing to the greater variety
of tone colour:

In Vol. II of the present work many examples of the above
methods will be found.

Distribution of notes in chords.

The normal order of sounds or the natural harmonic scale:

may serve as a guide to the orchestral arrangement of chords.
It will be seen that the widely-spaced intervals lie in the lower
part of the scale, gradually becoming closer as the upper register
is approached:

The bass should rarely lie at a greater distance than an octave
from the part directly above it (tenor harmony). It is necessary
to make sure that the harmonic notes are not lacking in the upper
parts:

The use of sixths in the upper parts, and the practice of
doubling the upper note in octaves are sometimes effective methods:

When correct progression increases the distance between the
top and bottom notes of the upper parts, this does not matter:

But it would be distinctly bad to fill in the second chord this:

Not good:

Hence it follows that the distribution of intermediate parts is a
question of the greatest importance. Nothing is worse than writing
chords, the upper and lower parts of which are separated by
wide, empty intervals, especially in forte passages; in piano passages
such distribution may be possible. Progression in contrary motion,
the upper and lower parts diverging by degrees gives rise to the
gradual addition of extra parts occupying the middle register:

When the voices converge, the middle parts are eliminated one
by one:

String harmony.

It is an incontrovertible rule that the resonance of different
harmonic parts must be equally balanced, but this balance will be
less noticeable in short sharp chords than in those which are
connected and sustained. Both these cases will be studied separately.
In the first case, in order to increase the number of harmonic
parts, each instrument in the string group may be provided with
double notes or chords of three and four notes. In the second
case, the resources are limited to double notes unis, or division
of parts.

A. Short chords. Chords of three or four notes can only be
executed rapidly on the strings.

Note. It is true that the two upper notes of a chord can be sustained and
held a long time; this, however, involves complications and will be considered
later.

Short chords, arco, only sound well when played forte (sf), and
when they can be supported by wind instruments. In the execution
of double notes and chords of three and four notes on the strings,
balance, perfect distribution of tone, and correct progression of
parts are of minor importance. What must be considered before
everything is the resonance of the chords themselves, and the degree
of ease with which they can be played. Those comprising notes on the
gut strings are the most powerful. Chords played on several strings
are usually assigned to 1st and 2nd violins and violas, the different
notes being divided between them according to ease in execution
and the demands of resonance. On account of its low register the
'cello is rarely called upon to play chords on three or four strings,
and is usually allotted the lowest note of the chord in company
with the double bass. Chords on the latter instrument are even
more uncommon, but it may supply the octave on an uncovered
string.

Examples:

• No. 97. Snegourotchka 171; cf. also before 140 and before 200.
• * Spanish Capriccio, before V(cf. Ex. 67).
• Shéhérazade, 2nd movement P (cf. Ex. 19.)
• * No. 98. Tsar Saltan 135; cf. also 141 and before 182.

Isolated chords may be added to a melodic figure in the upper
part, accentuating, sforzando, certain rhythmical moments.

Example:

• No. 99. Snegourotchka, before 126; cf. also 326.

B. Sustained and tremolando chords. Chords sustained for
a shorter or longer period of time, or tremolando passages, often
used as a substitute, demand perfect balance of tone. Taking for
granted that the different members of the string group are equal
in power, the parts being written according to the usual order of
register, (cf. Chap. 1), it is patent that a passage in close four-part
harmony, with the bass in octaves will also be uniformly resonant.
When it is necessary to introduce notes to fill up the empty
middle register, the upper parts being farther distant from the bass,
doubled notes on the violins or violas should be used, or on both
instruments together. The method of dividing strings, which is
sometimes adopted, should be avoided in such cases, as certain
parts of the chord will be divided and others will not; but, on the
other hand, if a passage in six and seven-part harmony be written
entirely for strings divided in the same manner, the balance of
tone will be completely satisfactory, e. g.,

If the harmony in the three upper parts, thus strengthened, is
written for divided strings, the 'cellos and basses, playing non divisi
will prove a trifle heavy; their tone must therefore be eased, either
by marking the parts down or reducing the number of players.

In the case of sustained chords or forte tremolando on two strings,
the progression of parts is not always according to rule, the intervals
chosen being those which are the easiest to play.

Examples:

• No. 100. The Christmas Night 161 -- Full divisi.
• No. 101.      "     "     " 210 -- [ILLUSTRATION]

  Violas div.'cellos div }4 part harmony

  .

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71




• No. 102. Snegourotchka 187-188 — Four-part harmony, Vns I,
  Vns II, Violas and Violoncellos.
•           "          243 — 4 Solo 'cellos divisi.
• Shéhérazade, 2nd movement, beginning. — 4 D. bass soli div.
  (cf. Ex. 40).
• The Tsar's Bride 179 — Chords on all strings (cf. Ex. 243).
• No. 103. Legend of Kitesh 8 — Harmonic basis in the strings.
•           "     "     240 — (cf. Ex. 21).
•           "     "     283 — Harmonic basis in the strings
  (cf. Ex. 2).
• No. 104. The Golden Cockerel 4 — Basis in the strings.
•      "     "     125 — Undulating rhythm in the
  strings as harmonic basis (cf. Ex. 271).

In a forte or sfp chord, where one or two of the upper notes is
held, either sustained or tremolando, the balance of tone must still
be maintained, as in the following example:

Wood-wind harmony.

Before entering upon this section of the work I would remind
the reader of the general principles laid down in the beginning of
the chapter.

Harmonic texture, composed of plain chords or ornamental designs,
simple or contrapuntal in character, must possess a resonance equally
distributed throughout. This may be obtained by the following means:

1.

• Instruments forming chords must be used continuously in the
  same way during a given passage, that is to say they must be
  doubled or not throughout, except when one of the harmonic parts
  is to be made prominent:
  
  

  To be avoided:

2.

• The normal order of register must be followed, except in the
  case of crossing or enclosure of parts, which will be discussed
  later on:
  
  

  To be avoided:

3.

• Corresponding or adjacent registers should be made to coincide
  except for certain colour effects:
  
  

  To be avoided:

  The second flute will sound too weak and
  the oboes too piercing.

4.

• Concords (octaves, thirds and sixths) and not discords (fifths,
  fourths, seconds and sevenths), should be given to instruments of
  the same kind or colour, except when discords are to be emphasized.
  This rule should be specially observed in writing for the
  oboe with its penetrating quality of tone:
  
  

  To be avoided:

Four-part and three-part harmony.

Harmonic writing for the wood-wind may be considered from
two points of view: a) instruments in pairs, 2 Fl., 2 Ob., 2 Cl., 2 Fag.;
and b) instruments in three's, 3 Fl., 2 Ob., Eng. horn, 3 Cl., 2 Fag.,
C-fag.

A.

• In pairs. There are three ways of distribution: 1. Superposition
  or overlaying (strictly following the normal order of register),
  

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  73

  
  
  
  2. Crossing, and 3. Enclosure of parts. The last two methods
  involve a certain disturbance of the natural order of register:
  
  

  Overlaying. Crossing. Enclosure.>

  In choosing one of these three methods the following points
  must not be forgotten: a) the register of a particular isolated chord;
  the soft and weak register of an instrument should not be coupled
  with the powerful and piercing range of another:
  

  

  Overlaying, Crossing, Enclosure,
  Oboe too piercing, Low notes of the flute too weak, Bassoon too prominent

  b) In a succession of chords the general progression of parts
  must be considered; one tone quality should be devoted to the
  stationary and another to the moving parts:
  

  

  When chords are in widely-divided four-part harmony notes may
  be allotted in pairs to two different tone qualities, adhering to the
  normal order of register:
  

  

  Good:, etc.

  Any other distribution will result unquestionably in a grievous
  lack of relationship between registers:
  

  

  To be avoided:, etc.

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  74

  
  
  

  If one tone quality is to be enclosed, it must be between two
  different timbres:
  

  

  Good:, etc.

  It is possible to lend four distinct timbres to a chord in widely-divided
  four-part harmony, though such a chord will possess no
  uniformity in colour; but the higher the registers of the different
  instruments are placed, the less perceptible becomes the space
  which separates them:
  

  

  Fairly good, Better, Still better

  The use of four different timbres in close four-part harmony is
  to be avoided, as the respective registers will not correspond:
  

  

  Bad, Better, Still slightly better

  Note. In Mozart and Salieri, which is only scored for 1 Fl., 1 Ob., 1 Cl.
  and 1 Fag., wood-wind chords in four-part harmony are of necessity devoted
  to these four different timbres.

  The same rules apply to writing in three-part harmony, which
  is the most customary form when it is a question of establishing
  a harmonic basis, the lowest register of which is entrusted to
  another group of instruments (strings arco or pizz., for example).
  Chords in three-part harmony are generally given to two instruments
  of one timbre and a third instrument of another, but never
  to three different timbres. Overlaying of parts is the best course
  to adopt:
  

  

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  75

  
  
  

  The use of crossing and enclosure of parts (which in a way
  amount to the same thing) must depend on the manner of their
  progression:
  

  

  Enclosure:

B.

• Wood-wind in three's. Here the distribution of chords in
  close three-part harmony is self-evident; any grouping of three
  instruments of the same timbre is sure to sound well:
  

  
  

  also:

  

  Overlaying of parts is the best method to follow in writing
  close four-part harmony; three instruments of the same timbre
  with a fourth instrument of another. Crossing and enclosure of
  parts may also be employed. Correspondence of timbres and the
  progression of remote parts must be kept in mind:
  

  

  The method of using three instruments of the same timbre in
  widely-divided three-part harmony is inferior:
  

  

  Not good, Better

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  76

  
  
  

  But if the third instrument is of low register (Bass Fl., Eng.
  horn, Bass cl., or C-fag.), the resonance will be satisfactory:
  

  

  In chords of four-part harmony, three instruments of the same
  timbre should be combined with a fourth instrument of another:
  

  

  etc.

Harmony in several parts.

In writing chords of 5, 6, 7 and 8 part-harmony, whether they
are independent, or constitute the harmonic basis, the student
should follow the principles outlined in the previous chapter,
dealing with the progression of wood-wind instruments in octaves.
As the 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th notes are only duplications in octaves
of lower notes of the real harmony (in 4 parts), instruments
should be chosen which combine amongst themselves to give the
best octaves. The process of crossing and enclosure of parts
may also be used.

A.

• Wood-wind in pairs (close distribution):
  

  

  In widely-divided harmony chords in several parts are to be
  avoided as they will entail both close and extended writing:
  

  

  Note. In the majority of cases this distribution is employed when the two
  upper harmonic parts have a special melodic duty to perform — this question
  is discussed above.

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77





B.

• Wood-wind in three's:
  

  
  

  etc.

  Overlaying of parts is the most satisfactory method in dealing
  with close three-part harmony. Crossing of parts is not so
  favourable, as octaves will be produced contrary to the natural
  order of register:
  

   

  Here the arrangement

  is bad.

Duplication of timbres.

A.

• If the wood-wind is in pairs it is a good plan to mix the
  doubled timbres as much as possible:
  
  

  Excellent

  

  also

  In chords of four-part harmony the classical method may be
  adopted:
  

  

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  78

  
  
  

  In this case, though the high C in the flute is fairly powerful,
  the resonance of the G and E in the oboes is softened by the
  duplication of the 2nd flute and 1st clarinet, while the C in the
  2nd clarinets (not doubled) is feeble in comparison with the other
  notes. In any case the two extreme parts are the thinnest and
  weakest in tone, the intermediate parts the fullest and strongest.

B.

• Wood-wind in three's admit of perfectly balanced mixed
  timbres in chords of three-part harmony:
  
  

  These timbres may even originate from three-fold duplication:
  

  

Remarks.

1.

• Modern orchestrators do not allow any void in the intermediate
  parts in writing close harmony; it was permitted to some extent
  by the
  classics:
  

  These empty spaces create a bad effect especially in forte passages.
  For this reason widely-divided harmony, which is fundamentally
  based on the extension of intervals, can be used but seldom and
  only in piano passages. Close writing is the more frequent form
  in all harmony devoted to the wood-wind, forte or piano.

2.

• As a general rule a chord of greatly extended range and in
  several parts is distributed according to the order of the natural
  scale, with wide intervals (octaves and sixths), in the bass part,
  lesser intervals (fifths and fourths) in the middle, and close intervals
  (3rds or 2nds) in the upper register:
  

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  79

  
  
  
  

3.

• In many cases correct progression of parts demands that
  one of them should be temporarily doubled. In such cases the
  ear is reconciled to the brief overthrow of balance for the sake
  of a single part, and is thankful for the logical accuracy of the
  progression. The following example will illustrate my meaning:
  
  

  In the second bar of this example the D is doubled in unison
  on account of the proximity of the three upper parts to their
  corresponding parts an octave lower. In the fourth bar the F is
  doubled in unison in both groups.

4.

• The formation of the harmonic basis, which is essentially in
  four parts, does not by any means devolve upon the wood-wind
  alone. One of the parts is often devoted to the strings, arco or
  pizz. More frequently the bass part is treated separately, the
  chords of greater value in the three upper parts being allotted to
  the wood-wind. Then, if the upper part is assigned to a group
  of strings, there remains nothing for the wind except the sustained
  harmony in the two middle parts. In the first case the three-part
  harmony in the wood-wind should form an independent whole,
  receiving no assistance from the bass; in this manner intervals of
  open fourths and fifths will be obviated. In the second case it
  is desirable to provide the intermediate parts with a moderately
  full tone, choosing no other intervals except seconds, sevenths,
  thirds or sixths.

  All that has been said with regard to the use of wood-wind in
  the formation of harmony, and the division of simple and mixed
  

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  80

  
  
  
  timbres applies with equal force to sustained chords, or harmonic
  progressions interchanging rapidly with staccato chords. In short
  chords, separated by rests of some importance, the arrangement
  and division of timbres is not so perceptible to the ear, and progression
  of parts attracts less attention. It would be useless, nay,
  impossible to examine the countless combinations of tone colour,
  all the varieties of duplication and distribution of chords. It has
  been my aim to denote the fundamental principles upon which to
  work, and to indicate the general rules to be followed. Once having
  mastered these, if the student devote a little time to the study of
  full scores, and listen to them on the orchestra, he will soon
  learn when certain methods should be used and when to adopt
  others. The pupil is advised, generally, to write for wood-wind
  in its normal order of distribution, to take heed that each particular
  chord is composed entirely either of duplicated or non-duplicated
  parts, (except in certain cases resulting from progression),
  to use the methods of crossing and enclosure of timbres with full
  knowledge of what he is doing, and finally to concentrate his
  attention on close part-writing.

  Examples of wood-wind harmony.

  a)

  Independent chords.
  • No. 105. The Christmas Night 148 — Cl., 2 Fag.
  • No. 106. "     "     "     beginning — Ob., Cl., Fag. (crossing
    of parts).
  • Snegourotchka 16 — 2 Cl., Fag.
  •      "      79, 5th bar. — 2 Ob., 2 Fag. (cf. Ex. 136).
  • * No. 107. Snegourotchka 197 — Picc., 2 Fl. (tremolando).
  • No. 108.      "     204 — 2 Fl., 2 Ob. (high register).
  • No. 109. Shéhérazade, beginning — Total wood-wind in different
    distribution.
  • * Russian Easter Fête A — 3 Fl. tremolando (cf. Ex. 176).
  • * Tsar Saltan 45 — Ob., 2 Fag.
  • No. 110. Tsar Saltan, before 115 — mixed timbres.
  • No. 111. "     "      115, and other similar passages — very
    sweet effect of wood-wind in three's.
  •      "     "     177 — 2 Ob., 2 Fag.

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  81

  
  
  
  • Sadko, Symphonic Tableau 9 — Ob., 2 Cl., Fag.
  • * Sadko, Opera 4 — Eng. horn, 2 Cl.
  • "     "     , before 5 — Total wood-wind.
  • No. 112. Sadko 72 — Chords in three-part harmony; simple
    and mixed timbres.
  • * No. 113. The Tsar's Bride 126 Full wind.
  • * No. 114. Legend of Kitesh, before 90 — Enclosure of parts
                                  (Ob. I in the high register).
  • No. 115.      "     "     "     before 161 — Wind and brass
                                  alternately.
  • No. 116.      "     "     167 — Full wind except oboe, with chorus.
  • Legend of Kitesh 269 — Fl., Cl., Fag.
  • * The Golden Cockerel 125 — Various wind instruments, 4 part
                             harmony (cf. Ex. 271).
  •      "     "     218 — Ob., Eng. horn, Fag., C — fag.; cf.
                             also 254.
  • No. 117. The Golden Cockerel, before 236 — Mixed timbre;
                             2 Fag. form the bass.

  b)

  Harmonic basis (sometimes joined by the horns).
  • The May Night, Act III L — 2 Fag., Eng. horn (cf. Ex. 18).
  • Antar 68 — 3 Flutes.
  • Snegourotchka 20 — 2 Cl., high register.
  •      "     before 50 — 2 Fl., Fag.
  •      "     187 — 2 Ob., 2 Fag.
  •      "     274 — 2 Cl., low register (cf. Ex. 9).
  •      "     283 — Fl., Eng. horn, Cl., Fag. (cf. Ex. 26).
  • No. 118. Snegourotchka 292 — Widely — divided harmony and
                             doubling of parts in the wind.
  • No. 119.      "     318-319 — 2 Flutes.
  • Shéhérazade, 2nd movement B — 2 Cl., Fag. (sustained note in
                             the horn) (cf. Ex. 1).
  • The Christmas Night 1 — 3 Cl.
  • Sadko 1 — Cl., Bass cl., Fag., C-fag.
  • No. 120. Sadko 49 — Ob., Cl., Horn, Fag.
  •           " 99 — 2 Cl. (cf. Ex. 289, 290).

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  82

  
  
  
  • No. 121. Sadko 144 — Cl., Fag.
  • No. 122. "     195-196 — 2 Cl., Bass Cl.
  • The Tsar's Bride 80 — Cl., Fag.
  •      "     " 166 — harmonic parts in motion, Fl.
                             and Cl. (cf. Ex. 22.
  • Servilia 59 — Cl. (low. register), Fag.
  • * No. 123. Kashtcheï the Immortal 80 — Ob., Fag. muted.
  • * No. 124. Legend of Kitesh. 52 — Fl. Fag.
  •           "     "     55 — Fl., Ob. (cf. Ex. 197).
  •           "     "     68 — Eng. horn, Fag., C — fag. (cf.
                                  Ex. 199)
  • No. 124.      "     "     118 — mixed timbre: 2 Ob., Eng.
                             horn and 3 Cl.
  •           "     "     136 — harmonic parts in motion:
  •           "     "     before 185 — 3 Fl. (low register)
                                  and 2 Cl.
  •           "     "     223 — Fl., Ob., Cl. (cf. Ex. 31).
  • * No. 125.      "     "     247 — 2 Cl., Bass cl.
  •           "     "     273 — Eng. horn, 2 Cl. and Bass
                                       cl., Fag.
  • * No. 126.      "     "     355 — Eng. horn muted, Cl., 2 Fag.
  • * No. 127. The Golden Cockerel 3 — Cl., Bass cl., Fag., C-fag.
  •           "     "     40-41 Bass cl., Fag.; Fl., Cl.;
                                  Cl., Bass cl.
  • * No. 128.      "     "     156 — harmonic parts in motion:
                                  Fl. and Cl.

Harmony in the brass.

Here, as in the wood-wind, part writing should be of the close
order with no empty spaces in the intervals.

Four-part writing.

It is evident that the quartet of horns presents every facility for
four-part harmony, perfectly balanced in tone, without doubling
the bass in octaves:

Note. In the diagrams of the present section the actual sounds of horns
and trumpets are given, as in a piano score, for the sake of simplicity.

When it is found necessary to double the bass in octaves, the
too resonant trombone and tuba are seldom used, the duplication
being effected by the bassoon, as explained further on. The quartet
of trombones and tuba is not often employed in close four-part
harmony; the third trombone and the tuba usually form the bass
in octaves, and the three upper parts are generally allotted to the
two remaining trombones reinforced by a trumpet or two horns
in unison, so as to obtain a perfect balance of tone:

I have often adopted the following combination of brass instruments,
and consider it eminently satisfactory: 2 horns and tuba to
form the bass in octaves, the three other parts given to the trombones:

In the higher registers, four-part harmony, of which the two upper
parts are given to the trumpets, may be completed by two trombones
or four horns in pairs:

When 3 trumpets are available the fourth part should be allotted
to one trombone, or two horns in unison:

Enclosure of parts may be used in single chords:

or in progression:

Three-part writing.

The best combination is trombones, horns, or trumpets in three's.
If the instruments are mixed the number of horns should be
doubled:

Writing in several parts.

When the whole group is used the number of horns should be
doubled:

In seven, six, or five-part harmony certain instruments must
be omitted:

Discords of the seventh or second are preferably entrusted to
instruments of different tone colour:

When such chords are written for an orchestra which only
includes two trumpets, it is impossible for the horns to proceed in
pairs. In such cases the following arrangement may obtain, the
horns being marked one degree louder than the other instruments,
to secure balance of tone:

The same method should be followed whenever the use of horns
in pairs fails to produce satisfactory tone.

When chords of widely-divided harmony are distributed throughout
several harmonic registers, the register occupied by the horns
need not be doubled; the arrangement of the chord will resemble
that of a chorale written for double or triple choir. For
example:

Duplication in the brass.

Duplication in the brass group is most frequently effected by placing
a chord for horns side by side with the same chord written for
trumpets or trombones. The soft round quality of the horns intensifies
the tone, and moderates the penetrating timbre of the trumpets
and trombones:

Similar juxtaposition of trumpets and trombones:

is not so common, as this unites the two most powerful agents
in the group.

In handling an orchestra the brass is frequently employed to sustain
notes in two or three octaves; this sphere of activity must not
be ignored. The tenuto is generally given to two trumpets, or to
two or four horns in the octave, (in double octaves). The octave is
sometimes formed by trumpets and horns acting together:

The trombone with its ponderous tone rarely takes part in such
combinations. Sustained notes in double octaves are usually
apportioned thus:

The imperfect balance arising from the duplication of the middle
note is compensated for by the mixture of timbres, which lends
some unity to the chord.

Examples of harmony in the brass:

a)

Independent chords:
• Snegourotchka 74 — 3 Trombones, 2 Horns.
•      "     140 — 3 Trombones, 2 Horns. Chords in different
                           groups alternately (cf. Ex. 244).
•      "     171 — Full brass; further on 3 Trombones (cf. Ex. 97).
•      "     255 — 4 Horns (stopped).

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• No. 129. Snegourotchka, before 289 — 4 Horns.
•           "          289 — Full brass.
• * Sadko, before 9 — Full brass (enclosure of parts).
• No. 130. Sadko 175 — Mixed timbres (juxtaposition) 3 Horns
                           + 3 Trumpets.
•      "     before 338 — Full brass except Tuba.
• No. 131. "     191-193 (Full brass).
• No. 132. The Christmas Night, before 180 — Full muted brass.
•           "     "     181 — 4 Horns + 3 Trombones
  + Tuba (cf. Ex. 237).
• * The Tsar's Bride 178 — Strings and brass alternately (cf. Ex. 242).
• * No. 133. Tsar Saltan 102 7th bar. — 2 Trumpets, 2 Trombones
                           + 4 Horns (juxtaposition).
•           "     230 — Full brass, thickly scored (cf.
  Table of chords No. 11 at the end of Vol. II, Ex. 12).
• * Servilia 154 — Various brass instruments.
• * Legend of Kitesh 130 — 3 Trumpets, Trombone and Tuba.
• No. 134. Legend of Kitesh 199 — Short chords (juxtaposition).
• * No. 135. The Golden Cockerel 115 — Horns, Trombones (enclosure).

b)

Harmonic basis:
• No. 136. Snegourotchka 79, 6th bar. — 4 Horns.
•           "     231 — Trombones, soft and sweet (cf.
                                Ex. 8).
• Antar 64-65 — 4 Horns; later 3 Trombones (cf. Ex. 32).
• * Shéhérazade, 1st movement, A, E, H, K, M — Harmonic
  bases of different power and timbre (cf. Ex. 192 — 195).
• No. 137. Servilia 93 — Full brass.
• * No. 138. Tsar Saltan 127 — 4 muted Horns + 3 Trombones
                                and Tuba con sord. pp.
•           "     before 147 — Full brass ff (the 2 Oboes
  and Eng. horn are of no particular importance).
• * Pan Voyevoda 136, 9th bar. — 4 Horns, then Trombones, 2 Horns.
• No. 139. Legend of Kitesh 158 — Trumpets, Trombones.
• No. 140.      "     "     248 — 3 Trombones.
•           "     "     before 362 — Full brass.

Harmony in combined groups.

A. Combination of wind and brass.

Wind and brass instruments may be combined by the method
of placing a chord in one timbre side by side with the same chord
in another timbre, or by any of the three methods already described:
overlaying, crossing and enclosure of parts.

1. In unison (juxtaposition or contrast of tone qualities).

This class of combination possesses the same features as combinations
in the melodic line (cf. Chap. II). Wood-wind reinforces
the brass, softens it and reduces its characteristic qualities. Arrangements
such as the following are possible:
2 Trumpets + 2 Fl.;     2 Trumpets + 2 Ob.;     2 Trumpets + 2 Cl.
3 Trumpets + 3 Fl.;     3 Trumpets + 3 Ob.;     3 Trumpets + 3 Cl.

Also

as well as:
     2 Horns + 2 Fag.;     2 Horns + 2 Cl.;
     3 Horns + 3 Fag.;     3 Horns + 3 Cl.; and:
2 Horns + 2 Fag. + 2 Cl. etc.

The combination 3 Trombones + 3 Fag., or 3 Trombones + 3 Cl.
are very rare.

A chord scored for full brass doubled by the same chords scored
for full wood-wind (in pairs) produces a magnificent and uniform tone.

Examples:

• Snegourotchka 315 — 2 Horns + 2 Cl. and 2 Horns + 2 Ob. (cf.
  Ex. 236).
• No. 141. The Tsar's Bride 50 — 4 Horns + 2 Cl., 2 Fag.
• No. 142.      "     "     142 — Juxtaposition of full wind
  and brass.
• Ivan the Terrible, Act II 30 — Juxtaposition and enclosure (cf.
  Table of chords II, Ex. 8).
• No. 143. The Christmas Night 165 — 4 Horns + Fl., Cl., Fag.

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• * No. 144. Sadko, before 79 — Horn, Trumpet + doubled wood                         wind
  [1].
• No. 145.      " 242 — Full brass + Fl., Cl.
• Legend of Kitesh, beginning — Horn, Trombones + Cl., Fag. (cf.
  also 5 — Ex. 249).
• * No. 146. Legend of Kitesh 10 — Eng. horn, 2 Cl., Fag. legato
                           + 4 Horns non legato.
•           "     "     324 — Full brass + wind.
• * No. 147. The Golden Cockerel 233 — [ILLUSTRATION]

  Trumpets + Ob./ Horn + Cl. ]8.

Stopped or muted notes in trumpets and horns resemble the
oboe and Eng. horn in quality; the combination of these instruments
produces a magnificent tone.

Examples:

• No. 148. Russian Easter Fête, p. 11. — Horn (+), Trumpets (low
  register) + Ob., Cl.
• * The Christmas Night, before 154 — Full muted brass + wind.
• * No. 149. Tsar Saltan 129 — 2 Ob., Eng. horn, + 3 Trumpets
                           muted (3 Cl. at the bottom).
• * No. 150.      "     131, 17th bar. — Same combination with
                                added horns.
• * No. 151. Antar 7 — Ob., Eng. horn, 2 Fag. + 4 Horns (+).

A beautiful dark tone is derived from the combination of middle
notes in stopped horns and deep notes in the clarinet:

If bassoons are substituted for clarinets the effect loses part of
its character.

Examples:

• * Kashtcheï the Immortal 29, 11th bar. — 2 Ob., 2 Cl. + 4 Horns (+).
•      "     "     "     107, 6th bar. — 2 Cl., Fag. + 3 Horns (+).
• * The Christmas Night, p. 249 — Cl., Fag. + 3 Horns (+).
• * Mlada, Act III 19 — 3 Horns (+) + 3 Fag. and 3 Horns (+) + 3 Ob. (cf. Ex. 259).

2. Overlaying (superposition), crossing, enclosure of parts.

It has already been stated that the bassoon and horn are the
two instruments best capable of reconciling the groups of woodwind
and brass. Four-part harmony given to two bassoons and
two horns, especially in soft passages yields a finely-balanced tone
recalling the effect of a quartet of horns, but possessing slightly
greater transparence. In forte passages the horns overwhelm the
bassoons, and it is wiser to employ four horns alone. In the former
case crossing of parts is to be recommended for the purposes of
blend, the concords being given to the horns, the discords to the
bassoons:

 

and not:

Bassoons may also be written inside the horns, but the inverse
process is not to be recommended:

The same insetting of parts may be used for sustained trumpet
notes in octaves. In soft passages, thirds played in the low register
of the flutes, sometimes combined with clarinets, produce a beautiful
mysterious effect between trumpets in octaves. In a chain of
consecutive chords it is advisable to entrust the stationary parts
to the brass, the moving parts to the wood-wind.

Clarinets, on account of their tone quality should rarely be set
inside the horns, but, in the upper register, and in the higher harmonic
parts, a chord of four horns, (piano), may be completed
by clarinets as effectively as by oboes or flutes; the bassoon may
then double the bass an octave below:

Played forte, the horns are more powerful than the wood-wind;
balance may be established by doubling the upper harmonic parts:

Examples:

a)

• Superposition.
  
  • * Sadko, Symphonic Tableau 1, 9 — Fl., Ob., Cl., Horn (basis).
  •      " before 14 — 2 Fl., Cl., Horns.
  •      " final chord — Fl., Cl., Horn.
  • * Antar 22 — Fl., Cl., Horns (basis).
  • No. 152. Antar 56 — 3 Fl., 4 Horns (basis).
  • * Snegourotchka 300 — Full wind and horns.
  • * Shéhérazade — Final chords of 1st and 4th movements.
  • * Russian Easter Fête D — Fl., Cl., Horn; later trumpets and
    trombones in juxtaposition (cf. Ex. 248).
  • * No. 153. The Christmas Night 212, 10th bar. — Wind and Horns;
                        trumpets and trombones added
                        later.
  •           "     "     " 215 [ILLUSTRATION]

    3 Fl. + 3 Cl./3 Horns ] 8.

  • * Sadko, Opera 165 — Juxtaposition and Superposition.
  • No. 154. Sadko 338 — Same distribution.
  • No. 155 Servilia 73 [ILLUSTRATION]

    3 Fl. + 2 Ob., Cl./4 Horns.

  • * No. 156. Legend of Kitesh, before 57 — 3 Flutes, 3 Trombones.
  •           "     "     final chord (cf. Table III of chords,
    Ex. 15).
  • * The Golden Cockerel, before 219 — Mixed timbre of wood-wind,
    4 Horns.

b)

• Crossing.
  
  • * The Christmas Night, before 53 — Horn., Fag.
  •      "     "     107 — Clar., Horn., Fag.
  • * Legend of Tsar Saltan, before 62 — Horn., Fag.
  • * The Golden Cockerel 220 — 3 Trombones, 2 Fag., C-fag.
    (cf. Ex. 232).
  • * No. 157 Antar, before 30 — Wood — wind, Horns, then Trumpets.

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c)

• Enclosure:
  
  • No. 158. Ivan the Terrible, Act I 33 — Flutes within horns; later
    horns within bassoons.
  • No. 159. Snegourotchka183 — [ILLUSTRATION]

    Trumpet/Fl., 2 Cl./Trumpet

  • * Sadko, symphonic tableau 3 — [ILLUSTRATION]

    Cl. + Fag./4 Horns/Cl. + Fag.

  • * Antar before 37 — [ILLUSTRATION]

    Fag./2 Horns (+)/Cl.

  • * Sadko, Opera 105 — Harmonic basis; oboes within trumpets
    (cf. Ex. 260).
  • * No. 160. Sadko, Opera, before 150 — Flutes within trumpets.
  • * The Tsar's Bride, end of Overture — Bassoons within horns
    (cf. Table III of chords, Ex. 14).
  • * Nr. 161. Tsar Saltan 50 — Trumpets within wood-wind doubled.
  • No. 162     "     "     59 — Flutes within trumpets; clarinets
    within horns.
  • * Nr. 163. Legend of Kitesh 82 — Oboes and clarinets within
    trumpets.

The relationship which has been shown to exist between stopped
horns and oboe or Eng. horn authorizes the simultaneous use of
these instruments in one and the same chord, played p or sfp:

Examples:

• * The Christmas Night 75 — 3 Horns (+) + Oboe.
• The Tsar's Bride 123 — Ob., Eng. horn, Horn (+) (cf. Ex. 240).
• * Legend of Kitesh 244 — Cl., 2 Fl., + 2 Ob., Eng. horn, 3 Horn (+).
• * Nr. 164. Legend of Kitesh, before 256 — [ILLUSTRATION]

  2 Ob., Eng. horn/3 Horns(+)]8.

• * Cf. also Tsar Saltan, before 115 — [ILLUSTRATION]

  Horn(+)/2 Fl. + 2 Fag.

  (Ex. 110).

If trumpets and trombones take part in a chord, flutes, oboes
and clarinets are better used to form the harmonic part above the
trumpets. The following should be the arrangement:

Examples:

• * Sadko, symphonic tableau 20.
• * No. 165. The May Night, Act I Ee — 3 Trombones, 2 Ob.
                                + 2 Cl. + 2 Fag.
•           "     "     "     p. 325. — Final chord, C maj. (cf.
                                Table I of chords, Ex. 1).
• * No. 166. Snegourotchka 198; cf. also 200 and before 210.
• * Shéhérazade, 1st movement E, 2nd movement P, 3rd movement
  M, 4th movement p. 203 (cf. Ex. 195, 19, 210, 77).
• Nr. 167. The Christmas Night 205; cf. also 161, 212, 14th bar.
  (Ex. 100, 153).
• * Mlada, end of Act I (cf. Chord Table II, Ex. 13). Act II 20.
• No. 168 — 169. Sadko, Opera, before 249, 302; cf. also Ex. 120).

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• No. 170. Sadko, Opera 244 — Chord of widely extended range;
                      bassoons at the limit of low compass.
•           "     "     142, 239; cf. also 3 (Ex. 86).
• * The Tsar's Bride 179 (cf. Ex. 243).
• Antar 65 — Alternation of notes in horns and wood-wind on
  trombone chords (cf. Ex. 32).

General observations. It is not always possible to secure proper
balance in scoring for full wood-wind. For instance, in a succession
of chords where the melodic position is constantly changing,
distribution is subordinate to correct progression of parts.
In practice, however, any inequality of tone may be counterbalanced
by the following acoustic phenomenon: in every chord the parts
in octaves strengthen one another, the harmonic sounds in the
lowest register coinciding with and supporting those in the highest.
In spite of this fact it rests entirely with the orchestrator to obtain
the best possible balance of tone; in difficult cases this may be
secured by judicious dynamic grading, marking the wood-wind one
degree louder than the brass.

B. Combination of strings and wind.

1. We frequently meet with the combination of strings and woodwind
in the light of comparison of one timbre with another, either
in long sustained notes, or tremolando in the strings. Apart from
the complete or partial doubling of the string quartet (two methods
frequently used), the general and most natural arrangement is:

Examples:

• * Sadko, Symphonic Tableau before 4, and 4, 9th bar.
• * Shéhérazade, 1st movement M 6 Vns soli + 2 Ob. (2 Fl.), Cl.
• * Antar 7 — String quartet divisi + wood-wind (cf. Ex. 151).
• * No. 171. Antar 57 — Vns II, Violas div. + Fl., Horn (florid
  accompaniment in the Clar.).
• * Legend of Kitesh 295 — the same; rhythmic motion in the
  wind, sustained harmony in the strings (cf. Ex. 213).

2. Owing to the complete absence of any affinity in tone quality,
the combination of strings with brass is seldom employed in juxtaposition,
crossing, or enclosure of parts.

The first method may be used however when the harmony is
formed by the strings tremolando, and the brass is employed in
sustaining chords, also when the strings play short disconnected
chords, sforzando. Another possible exception may be mentioned;
the splendid effect of horns doubled by divided violas or 'cellos.

Examples:

• Snegourotchka 242 — Full brass + strings tremolando (cf. 1st Table
  of chords, Ex. 6).
• * Legend of Kitesh, before 240 — the same (Horn, Trumpet + ).
• * Sadko, Opera, before 34 — Horn + Violas div., Trombones +
  'Cellos div.[2].

C. Combination of the three groups.

The combination of strings, wood-wind and brass instruments,
set side by side, produces a full, round and firm tone.

Examples:

• No. 172. The Tsar's Bride, before 145 — Ob., Fag. + Horns
                                + Strings.
•           "     "     "     final chord (cf. Table I of chords,
                                Ex. 5).
• * No. 173. Sadko, end of 1st tableau — short chords. Last chords
  of the 1st, 3rd and 7th tableaux (cf. Table I and III, Vol. II, Ex. 9,
  10, 18).
• * No. 174. The Christmas Night 22 — Wind + Brass c. sord. +
  tremolo strings.
• Legend of Kitesh 162 (cf. Ex. 250).
• Snegourotchka — end of opera, (cf. Table III in Vol. II, Ex. 17)
  and a host of other examples.

General Observations. Balance and correct distribution of tone
is much more important in dealing with long sustained chords or
those of rhythmic design; in the case of short, disconnected chords
resonance is a minor consideration, but one which should not be
entirely neglected.

I have endeavoured to outline the general principles to be
followed, but I do not profess to deal with all the countless cases
which may arise in the course of orchestration. I have given a
few examples of well-sounding chords; for further information I
advise the reader to study full scores with care, as this is the
only method to acquire perfect knowledge of the distribution
and doubling of various instruments.