University of Virginia Library

Chapter I.
GENERAL REVIEW OF ORCHESTRAL GROUPS.

A. Stringed Instruments.

The following is the formation of the string quartet and the
number of players required in present day orchestras, either in the
theatre or concert-room.

      

	Full orchestra	Medium orchestra	Small orchestra
Violins I . . . .	16	12	8
"    II . . . .	14	10	6
Violas . . . . .	12	8	4
Violoncellos . . .	10	6	3
Double basses . .	8-10	4-6	2-3

In larger orchestras, the number of first violins may amount to
20 and even 24, the other strings being increased proportionately.
But such a great quantity of strings over-powers the customary
wood-wind section, and entails re-enforcing the latter. Sometimes
orchestras contain less than 8 first violins; this is a mistake, as
the balance between strings and wind is completely destroyed.
In writing for the orchestra it is advisable to rely on a medium-sized
body of strings. Played by a larger orchestra a work will
be heard to greater advantage; played by a smaller one, the harm
done will be minimised.

Whenever a group of strings is written for more than five
parts — without taking double notes or chords into consideration —
these parts may be increased by dividing each one into two, three
and four sections, or even more (divisi). Generally, one or more
of the principal parts is split up, the first or second violins, violas
or violoncellos. The players are then divided by desks, numbers 1,
3, 5 etc. playing the upper part, and 2, 4, 6 etc., the lower; or
else the musician on the right-hand of each desk plays the top
line, the one on the left the bottom line. Dividing by threes is
less easy, as the number of players in one group is not always
divisible by three, and hence the difficulty of obtaining proper
balance. Nevertheless there are cases where the composer should
not hesitate to employ this method of dividing the strings, leaving
it to the conductor to ensure equality of tone. It is always as
well to mark how the passage is to be divided in the score;
Vns I, 1, 2, 3 desks, 6 'Cellos div. à 3, and so on. Division into
four and more parts is rare, but may be used in piano passages,
as it greatly reduces volume of tone in the group of strings.

Note. In small orchestras passages sub-divided into many parts are very
hard to realise, and the effect obtained is never the one required.

String parts may be divided thus:

  

a{	Vns I div.	b{	Vns II div.	c{	Violas div.	d{	'Cellos div.
	Vns II		Violas div.		'Cellos div.		D. basses div.

Possible combinations less frequently used are:

   

e{	Vns I div.	f{	Vns II div.	g{	Violas div.	etc.
	Violas div.		'Cellos div.		D. basses div.

Note. It is evident that the tone quality in b and e will be similar. Still b
is preferable since the number of Vns II (14—10—6) and Violas (12—8—4)
is practically the same, the respective rôles of the two groups are more closely
allied, and from the fact that second violins generally sit nearer to the violas
than the first, thereby guaranteeing greater unity in power and execution.

The reader will find all manner of divisions in the musical
examples given in Vol. II. Where necessary, some explanation as
to the method of dividing strings will follow in due course. I dwell
on the subject here in order to show how the usual composition
of the string quartet may be altered.

Stringed instruments possess more ways of producing sound than
any other orchestral group. They can pass, better than other
instruments from one shade of expression to another, the varieties
being of an infinite number. Species of bowing such as legato,
detached, staccato, spiccato, portamento, martellato, light staccato,
saltando, attack at the nut and at the point, downbowdownbowdownbow and upbowupbowupbow (down
bow and up bow), in every degree of tone, fortissimo, pianissimo,
crescendo, diminuendo, sforzando, morendo — all this belongs to the
natural realm of the string quartet.

The fact that these instruments are capable of playing double notes
and full chords across three and four strings — to say nothing
of subdivision of parts — renders them not only melodic but also
harmonic in character [1].

From the point of view of activity and flexibility the violin
takes pride of place among stringed instruments, then, in order,
come the viola, 'cello and double bass. In practice the notes of
extreme limit in the string quartet should be fixed as follows:

  

for violins:	,	for violas:	,
for 'cellos:	,	for double basses:	.

Higher notes given in Table A, should only be used with caution,
that is to say when they are of long value, in tremolando, slow,
flowing melodies, in not too rapid sequence of scales, and in
passages of repeated notes. Skips should always be avoided.

Note. In quick passages for stringed instruments long chromatic figures
are never suitable; they are difficult to play and sound indistinct and muddled.
Such passages are better allotted to the wood-wind.

A limit should be set to the use of a high note on any one of
the three lower strings on violins, violas and 'cellos. This note
should be the one in the fourth position, either the octave note
or the ninth of the open string.

Nobility, warmth, and equality of tone from one end of the scale to
the other are qualities common to all stringed instruments, and render
them essentially superior to instruments of other groups. Further,
each string has a distinctive character of its own, difficult to define
in words. The top string on the violin (E) is brilliant in character,
that of the viola (A) is more biting in quality and slightly nasal;
the highest string on the 'cello (A) is bright and possesses a
"chest-voice" timbre. The A and D strings on the violin and the
D string on the violas and 'cellos are somewhat sweeter and
weaker in tone than the others. Covered strings (G), on the
violin (G and C), on the viola and 'cello are rather harsh. Speaking
generally, the double bass is equally resonant throughout,
slightly duller on the two lower strings (E and A), and more
penetrating on the upper ones (D and G).

Note. Except in the case of pedal notes, the double bass rarely plays an
independent part, usually moving in octaves or in unison with the 'cellos, or else
doubling the bassoons. The quality of the double bass tone is therefore seldom
heard by itself and the character of its different strings is not so noticeable.

The rare ability to connect sounds, or a series of sounds, the
vibration of stopped strings combined with their above-named
qualities — warmth and nobility of tone — renders this group of
instruments far and away the best orchestral medium of melodic
expression. At the same time, that portion of their range situated
beyond the limits of the human voice, e. g. notes on the violin
higher than the extreme top note of the soprano voice, from

upwards, and notes on the double bass below the range of the
bass voice, descending from

(written sound)
lose in expression and warmth of tone. Open strings are clearer
and more powerful but less expressive than stopped strings.

Comparing the range of each stringed instrument with that of
the human voice, we may assign: to the violin, the soprano and

contralto voice plus a much higher range; to the viola, the contralto
and tenor voice plus a much higher register; to the 'cello,
the tenor and bass voices plus a higher register; to the double
bass, the bass voice plus a lower range.

The use of harmonics, the mute, and some special devices in
bowing produce great difference in the resonance and tone quality
of all these instruments.

Harmonics, frequently used today, alter the timbre of a stringed
instrument to a very appreciable extent. Cold and transparent in
soft passages, cold and brilliant in loud ones, and offering but
little chance for expression, they form no fundamental part of orchestral
writing, and are used simply for ornament. Owing to
their lack of resonant power they should be used sparingly, and,
when employed, should never be overpowered by other instruments.
As a rule harmonics are employed on sustained notes, tremolando,
or here and there for brilliant effects; they are rarely used in
extremely simple melodies. Owing to a certain tonal affinity with
the flute they may be said to form a kind of link between string
and wood-wind instruments.

Another radical change is effected by the use of mutes. When
muted, the clear, singing tone of the strings becomes dull in soft
passages, turns to a slight hiss or whistle in loud ones, and the
volume of tone is always greatly reduced.

The position of the bow on the string will affect the resonance
of an instrument. Playing with the bow close to the bridge (sul
ponticello), chiefly used tremolando, produces a metallic sound;
playing on the finger-board (sul tasto, flautando) creates a dull,
veiled effect.

Note. Another absolutely different sound results from playing with the back
or wood of the bow (col legno). This produces a sound like a xylophone or
a hollow pizzicato. It is discussed under the heading of instruments of little
sustaining power.

The five sets of strings with number of players given above
produce a fairly even balance of tone. If there is any surplus
of strength it must be on the side of the first violins,
as they must be heard distinctly on account of the important
part they play in the harmonic scheme. Besides this, an extra
desk of first violins is usual in all orchestras, and as a general

Table A. String group.
(These instruments give all chromatic intervals.)

Black lines on each string denote the general range in orchestral writing, the dotted lines give the registers, low, medium, high, very high.

rule they possess a more powerful tone than second violins.
The latter, with the violas, play a secondary part, and do not
stand out so prominently. The 'cellos and double basses are
heard more distinctly, and in the majority of cases form the bass
in octaves.

In conclusion it may be said that the group of strings, as a
melodic element, is able to perform all manner of passages, rapid
and interrupted phrases of every description, diatonic or chromatic
in character. Capable of sustaining notes without difficulty, of
playing chords of three and four notes; adapted to the infinite
variety of shades of expression, and easily divisible into numerous
sundry parts, the string group in an orchestra may be considered
as an harmonic element particularly rich in resource.

B. Wind instruments.

Wood-wind.

Apart from the varying number of players, the formation of the
string group, with its five constituent parts remains constant, satisfying
the demands of any orchestral full score. On the other
hand the group of wood-wind instruments varies both as regards
number of parts and the volume of tone at its command, and here
the composer may choose at will. The group may be divided into
three general classes: wood-wind instruments in pair's, in three's
and in four's, (see table on page 13).

Arabic numerals denote the number of players on each instrument;
roman figures, the parts (1st, 2nd etc.). Instruments which
do not require additional players, but are taken over by one or the
other executant in place of his usual instrument, are enclosed in
brackets. As a rule the first flute, first oboe, first clarinet and first
bassoon never change instruments; considering the importance of
their parts it is not advisable for them to turn from one mouthpiece
to another. The parts written for piccolo, bass flute, English horn,
small clarinet, bass clarinet and double bassoon are taken by the
second and third players in each group, who are more accustomed
to using these instruments of a special nature.

     

Wood-wind in pair's	Wood-wind in three's	Wood-wind in four's
(II — Piccolo). 2 Flutes I.II.	(III — Piccolo). 3 Flutes I.II.III. (II — Bass flute).	1 Piccolo (IV). 3 Flutes I.II.III. (III — Bass flute).
2 Oboes I.II. (II — Eng. horn).	2 Oboes I.II. 1 Eng. horn (III). (II — Small clarinet).	3 Oboes I.II.III. 1 Eng. horn (IV). (II — Small clarinet).
2 Clarinets I.II. (II — Bass clarinet).	3 Clarinets I.II.III. (III — Bass clarinet).	3 Clarinets I.II.III. 1 Bass Clarinet (IV).
2 Bassoons I.II.	2 Bassoons I.II. 1 Double bassoon (III).	3 Bassoons I.II.III. 1 Double bassoon (IV).

The formation of the first class may be altered by the permanent
addition of a piccolo part. Sometimes a composer writes
for two piccolos or two Eng. horns etc. without increasing the
original number of players required (in three's or four's).

Note I. Composers using the first class in the course of a big work (oratorio,
opera, symphony, etc.) may introduce special instruments, called extras, for a
long or short period of time; each of these instruments involves an extra player
not required throughout the entire work. Meyerbeer was fond of doing this,
but other composers, Glinka for example, refrain from increasing the number
of performers by employing extras (Eng. horn part in Rousslân). Wagner uses
all three classes in the above table (in pair's: Tanhäuser — in three's: Tristan
— in four's: The Ring).

Note II. Mlada is the only work of mine involving formation by four's.
Ivan the Terrible, Sadko, The Legend of Tsar Saltan, The Legend of the
Invisible City of Kitesh and The Golden Cockerel all belong to the second
class, and in my other works, wood-wind in pair's is used with a varying
number of extras. The Christmas Night, with its two oboes, and two bassoons,
three flutes and three clarinets, forms an intermediate class.

Considering the instruments it comprises, the string group offers
a fair variety of colour, and contrast in compass, but this diversity
of range and timbre is subtle and not easily discerned.
In the wood-wind department, however, the difference in register
and quality of flutes, oboes, clarinets and bassoons is striking to a
degree. As a rule, wood-wind instruments are less flexible than

strings; they lack the vitality and power, and are less capable of
different shade of expression.

In each wind instrument I have defined the scope of greatest
expression, that is to say the range in which the instrument is
best qualified to achieve the various grades of tone, (forte, piano,
cresc., dim., sforzando, morendo, etc.) — the register which admits
of the most expressive playing, in the truest sense of the word.
Outside this range, a wind instrument is more notable for richness
of colour than for expression. I am probably the originator
of the term "scope of greatest expression". It does not apply to the
piccolo and double bassoon which represent the two extremes of
the orchestral compass. They do not possess such a register and
belong to the body of highly-coloured but non-expressive instruments.

The four kinds of wind instruments: flutes, oboes, clarinets and
bassoons may be generally considered to be of equal power. The
same cannot be said of instruments which fulfil a special purpose:
piccolo, bass flute, Eng. horn, small clarinet, bass clarinet and
double bassoon. Each of these instruments has four registers: low,
middle, high and extremely high, each of which is characterised
by certain differences of quality and power. It is difficult to define
the exact limits of each register; adjacent registers almost blend
together and the passage from one to another is scarcely noticeable.
But when the instrument jumps from one register to another the
difference in power and quality of tone is very striking.

The four families of wind instruments may be divided into
two classes: a) instruments of nasal quality and dark resonance —
oboes and bassoons (Eng. horn and double bassoon); and b) instruments
of "chest-voice" quality and bright tone — flutes and
clarinets (piccolo, bass flute, small clarinet, bass clarinet).

These characteristics of colour and resonance — expressed in
too simple and rudimentary a form — are specially noticeable in
the middle and upper registers. The lower register of the oboes
and bassoons is thick and rough, yet still nasal in quality; the
very high compass is shrill, hard and dry. The clear resonance
of the flutes and clarinets acquires something nasal and dark in the
lower compass; in the very high register it becomes somewhat
piercing.

Note to Table B.

In the following Table B the top note in each register serves as the bottom note
in the next, as the limits to each register are not defined absolutely. The note
G fixes the register of flutes and oboes, C for the clarinets and bassoons. In
the very high compass those notes are only given which can really be used;
anything higher and not printed as actual notes are either too difficult to
produce or of no artistic value. The number of sounds obtainable in the highest
compass is indefinite, and depends, partly on the quality of the instrument
itself, partly on the position and application of the lips. The signs > <
are not to be mistaken for crescendo and diminuendo; they indicate how the resonance of an instrument increases or diminishes in relation to the characteristic
quality of its timbre. The scope of greatest expression for each typical
instrument is marked thus, |________| under the notes; the range is the same
in each instrument of the same type.

Table B. Wind group.
These instruments give all chromatic intervals.

Note. It is a difficult matter to define tone quality in words; we must
encroach upon the domain of sight, feeling, and even taste. Though borrowed
from these senses, I have no doubt as to the appropriateness of my comparisons,
but, as a general rule definitions drawn from other sources are too elementary
to be applied to music. No condemnatory meaning however should be attached
to my descriptions, for in using the terms thick, piercing, shrill, dry, etc. my
object is to express artistic fitness in words, rather than material exactitude.
Instrumental sounds which have no musical meaning are classed by me in the
category of useless sounds, and I refer to them as such, giving my reasons.
With the exception of these, the reader is advised to consider all other orchestral
timbres beautiful from an artistic point of view, although it is necessary, at
times, to put them to other uses.

Further on, a table of wind instruments is appended, outlining the approximate
limit of range, defining different qualities of tone and indicating the scope
of greatest expression (the piccolo and double bassoon excepted).

Flutes and clarinets are the most flexible wood-wind instruments
(the flutes in particular), but for expressive power and subtlety
in nuances the clarinet supersedes them; this instrument can reduce
volume of tone to a mere breath. The nasal instruments, oboe
and bassoon, are less mobile and supple; this is accounted for
by their double reed, but, having to effect all sorts of scales and
rapid passages in common with the flutes and clarinets, oboes
and bassoons may be considered melodic instruments in the real
sense of the word, only of a more cantabile and peaceful character.
In very quick passages they often double the flutes, clarinets or strings.

The four families are equally capable of legato and staccato
playing and changing from one to the other in different ways,
but distinct and penetrating staccato passages are better suited to the
oboes and bassoons, while the flutes and clarinets excel in well-sustained
legato phrases. Composite legato passages should be
allotted to the first two instruments, composite staccato passages
to the latter pair, but these general directions should not deter
the orchestrator from adopting the opposite plan.

In comparing the technical individualities of the wood-wind the
following fundamental differences should be noted:

• a) The rapid repetition of a single note by single tonguing is common
  to all wind instruments; repetition of a single note by means
  of double tonguing is only possible on the flute, a reedless instrument.
• b) On account of its construction the clarinet is not well adapted
  to sudden leaps from one octave to another; these skips are
  easier on flutes, oboes and bassoons.

---

19




• c) Arpeggios and rapid alternation of two intervals legato sound
  well on flutes and clarinets, but not on oboes and bassoons.

Wood-wind players cannot manage extremely long sustained
passages, as they are compelled to take breath; care must be
taken therefore to give them a little rest from time to time. This
is unnecessary in the case of string players.

In the endeavour to characterise the timbre of each instrument
typical of the four families, from a psychological point of view, I
do not hesitate to make the following general remarks which apply
generally to the middle and upper registers of each instrument:

• a) Flute. — Cold in quality, specially suitable, in the major key, to
  melodies of light and graceful character; in the minor key, to
  slight touches of transient sorrow.
• b) Oboe. — Artless and gay in the major, pathetic and sad in
  the minor.
• c) Clarinet. — Pliable and expressive, suitable, in the major, to
  melodies of a joyful or contemplative character, or to outbursts of
  mirth; in the minor, to sad and reflective melodies or impassioned
  and dramatic passages.
• d) Bassoon. — In the major, an atmosphere of senile mockery;
  a sad, ailing quality in the minor.

In the extreme registers these instruments convey the following
impressions to my mind:

     

	Low register	Very high register
a) Flute —	Dull, cold	Brilliant
b) Oboe —	Wild	Hard, dry
c) Clarinet —	Ringing, threatening	Piercing
d) Bassoon —	Sinister	Tense

Note. It is true that no mood or frame of mind, whether it be joyful or sad,
meditative or lively, careless or reflective, mocking or distressed can be aroused
by one single isolated timbre; it depends more upon the general melodic line,
the harmony, rhythm, and dynamic shades of expression, upon the whole formation
of a given piece of music. The choice of instruments and timbre to
be adopted depends on the position which melody and harmony occupy in the
seven-octave scale of the orchestra; for example, a melody of light character
in the tenor register could not be given to the flutes, or a sad, plaintive phrase
in the high soprano register confided to the bassoons. But the ease with which
tone colour can be adapted to expression must not be forgotten, and in the
first of these two cases it may be conceded that the mocking character of the
bassoon could easily and quite naturally assume a light-hearted aspect, and

in the second case, that the slightly melancholy timbre of the flute is somewhat
related to the feeling of sorrow and distress with which the passage is
to be permeated. The case of a melody coinciding in character with the instrument
on which it is played is of special importance, as the effect produced
cannot fail to be successful. There are also moments when a composer's
artistic feeling prompts him to employ instruments, the character of which is
at variance with the written melody (for eccentric, grotesque effects, etc.).

The following remarks illustrate the characteristics, timbre, and
employment of special instruments:

The duty of the piccolo and small clarinet is, principally, to
extend the range of the ordinary flute and clarinet in the high
register. The whistling, piercing quality of the piccolo in its highest
compass is extraordinarily powerful, but does not lend itself to
more moderate shades of expression. The small clarinet in its
highest register is more penetrating than the ordinary clarinet.
The low and middle range of the piccolo and small clarinet
correspond to the same register in the normal flute and clarinet,
but the tone is so much weaker that it is of little service in those
regions. The double bassoon extends the range of the ordinary
bassoon in the low register. The characteristics of the bassoon's
low compass are still further accentuated in the corresponding
range of the double bassoon, but the middle and upper registers
of the latter are by no means so useful. The very deep notes of
the double bassoon are remarkably thick and dense in quality,
very powerful in piano passages.

Note. Nowadays, when the limits of the orchestral scale are considerably
extended (up to the high C of the 7th octave, and down to the low C, 16 ft.
contra octave), the piccolo forms an indispensable constituent of the wind-group;
similarly, it is recognised that the double bassoon is capable of supplying
valuable assistance. The small clarinet is rarely employed and only for colour
effects.

The English horn, or alto oboe (oboe in F) is similar in tone
to the ordinary oboe, the listless, dreamy quality of its timbre
being sweet in the extreme. In the low register it is fairly penetrating.
The bass clarinet, though strongly resembling the ordinary
clarinet, is of darker colour in the low register and lacks the
silvery quality in the upper notes; it is incapable of joyful expression.
The bass flute is an instrument seldom used even today;
it possesses the same features as the flute, but it is colder in

colour, and crystalline in the middle and high regions. These
three particular instruments, apart from extending the low registers
of the instruments to which they belong, have their own distinctive
peculiarities of timbre, and are often used in the orchestra, as solo
instruments, clearly exposed.

Note. Of the six special instruments referred to above, the piccolo and
double bassoon were the first to be used in the orchestra; the latter, however,
was neglected after Beethoven's death and did not reappear until towards the
end of the 19th century. The Eng. horn and bass clarinet were employed initially
during the first half of the same century by Berlioz, Meyerbeer, and others,
and for some time retained their position as extras, to become, later on,
permanent orchestral factors, first in the theatre, then in the concert room.
Very few attempts have been made to introduce the small clarinet into the
orchestra (Berlioz etc.); this instrument together with the bass flute is used
in my opera-ballet Mlada (1892), and also in my most recent compositions,
The Christmas Night, and Sadko; the bass flute will also be found in The
Legend of the Invisible City of Kitesh, and in the revised version of "Ivan the
Terrible".

Of late years the habit of muting the wood-wind has come into
fashion. This is done by inserting a soft pad, or a piece of rolled-up
cloth into the bell of the instrument. Mutes deaden the tone of
oboes, Eng. horns, and bassoons to such an extent that it is possible
for these instruments to attain the extreme limit of pianissimo
playing. The muting of clarinets is unnecessary, as they can play
quite softly enough without artificial means. It has not yet been
discovered how to mute the flutes; such a discovery would render
great service to the piccolo. The lowest note on the bassoon,
and on the oboe and Eng. horn
are impossible when the instruments are muted. Mutes have no
effect in the highest register of wind instruments.

Brass.

The formation of the group of brass instruments, like that of the
wood-wind is not absolutely uniform, and varies in different scores.
The brass group may be divided into three general classes corresponding
to those of the wood-wind (in pair's, in three's, and in
four's).

     

Group corresponding to the wood-wind in pair's	Group corresponding to the wood-wind in three's	Group corresponding to the wood-wind in four's
2 Trumpets I, II.	3 Trumpets I, II, III. (III — Alto trumpet or:    [  2 Cornets I, II.  2 Trumpets I, II.	(II — Small trumpet). 3 Trumpets I, II, III. (III — Alto trumpet or Bass trumpet.
4 Horns I, II, III, IV.	4 Horns I, II, III, IV.	6 or 8 Horns I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII.
3 Trombones.	3 Trombones I, II, III.	3 Trombones I, II, III.
1 Tuba.	1 Tuba [2].	1 Tuba.

The directions are the same as in the preceding table for woodwind.
It is evident that in all three classes the formation may
vary as the composer wishes. In music for the theatre or concert
room page after page may be written without the use of trumpets,
trombones and tuba, or some instrument may be introduced, temporarily
as an extra. In the above table I have given the most
typical formations, and those which are the most common at the
present day.

Note I. Besides the instruments given above, Richard Wagner used some
others in The Ring, notably the quartet of tenor and bass tubas, and a contrabass
trombone. Sometimes these additions weigh too heavily on the other
groups, and at other times they render the rest of the brass ineffective. For
this reason composers have doubtless refrained from employing such instruments,
and Wagner himself did not include them in the score of Parsifal. Some
present-day composers (Richard Strauss, Scriabine) write for as many as five
trumpets.

Note II. From the middle of the 19th century onward the natural brass
disappeared from the orchestra, giving place to valve instruments. In my second
opera, The May Night I used natural horns and trumpets, changing the keys,
and writing the best notes "stopped"; this was purposely done for practise.

Though far less flexible than the wood-wind, brass instruments
heighten the effect of other orchestral groups by their powerful
resonance. Trumpets, trombones, and tubas are about equal in

strength; cornets have not quite the same force; horns, in forte
passages, are about one half as strong, but piano, they have
the same weight as other brass instruments played softly. To
obtain an equal balance, therefore, the marks of expression in the
horns should be one degree stronger than in the rest of the brass;
if the trumpets and trombones play pp, the horns should be
marked p. On the other hand, to obtain a proper balance in
forte passages, two horns are needed to one trumpet or one
trombone.

Brass instruments are so similar in range and timbre that the
discussion of register is unnecessary. As a general rule quality
becomes more brilliant as the higher register is approached, and
vice versa, with a decrease in tone. Played pp the resonance is
sweet; played ff the tone is hard and "crackling". Brass instruments
possess a remarkable capacity for swelling from pianissimo
to fortissimo, and reducing the tone inversely, the sf > p effect
being excellent.

The following remarks as to character and tone quality may be added:

          

a)	1. Trumpets (B♭ — A). Clear and fairly penetrating in tone, stirring and rousing in forte passages; in piano phrases the high notes are full and silvery, the low notes troubled, as though threatening danger. 2. Alto trumpet (in F). An instrument of my own invention, first used by me in the opera-ballet Mlada. In the deep register (notes 2 to 3 in the trumpet scale) it possesses a fuller, clearer, and finer tone. Two ordinary trumpets with an alto trumpet produce greater smoothness and equality in resonance than three ordinary trumpets. Satisfied with the beauty and usefulness of the alto trumpet, I have consistently written for it in my later works, combined with wood-wind in three's.
Note. To obviate the difficulty of using the alto trumpet in ordinary theatres and some concert rooms, I have not brought into play the last four notes of its lowest register or their neighbouring chromatics; by this means the alto trumpet part may be played by an ordinary trumpet in B♭ or A.
	3. Small trumpet (in E♭ — D). Invented by me and used for the first time in Mlada to realise the very high
trumpet notes without difficulty. In tonality and range the instrument is similar to the soprano cornet in a military band.
Note. The small trumpet, (B♭ — A) sounding an octave higher than the ordinary trumpet has not yet appeared in musical literature.
b)	Cornets (in B♭ — A). Possessing a quality of tone similar to the trumpet, but softer and weaker. It is a beautiful instrument though rarely employed today in theatre or concert room. Expert players can imitate the cornet tone on the trumpet, and vice versa.
c)	Horn (in F). The tone of this instrument is soft, poetical, and full of beauty. In the lower register it is dark and brilliant; round and full in the upper. The middle notes resemble those of the bassoon and the two instruments blend well together. The horn, therefore, serves as a link between the brass and wood-wind. In spite of valves the horn has but little mobility and would seem to produce its tone in a languid and lazy manner.
d)	Trombone. Dark and threatening in the deepest register, brilliant and triumphant in the high compass. The piano is full but somewhat heavy, the forte powerful and sonorous. Valve trombones are more mobile than slide trombones, but the latter are certainly to be preferred as regards nobility and equality of sound, the more so from the fact that these instruments are rarely required to perform quick passages, owing to the special character of their tone.
e)	Tuba. Thick and rough in quality, less characteristic than the trombone, but valuable for the strength and beauty of its low notes. Like the double bass and double bassoon, the tuba is eminently useful for doubling, an octave lower, the bass of the group to which it belongs. Thanks to its valves, the tuba is fairly flexible.

The group of brass instruments, though uniform in resonance
throughout its constituent parts, is not so well adapted to expressive
playing (in the exact sense of the word) as the wood-wind group.
Nevertheless, a scope of greatest expression may be distinguished

Table C. Brass group.
These instruments give all chromatic intervals.

Natural sounds are given in white notes. The upper lines indicate the scope of greatest expression.
* The 7th natural harmonic is everywhere omitted as useless; the same in the horns, the notes 11, 13, 14 and 15.
** The bnatural of the octave — 1 does not exist on the trombone.

in the middle registers. In company with the piccolo and double
bassoon it is not given to the small trumpet (E♭ — D) and tuba
to play with any great amount of expression. The rapid and
rhythmical repetition of a note by single tonguing is possible to
all members of the brass, but double tonguing can only be done
on instruments with a small mouth-piece, trumpets and cornets.
These two instruments can execute rapid tremolando without difficulty.
The remarks on breathing, in the section devoted to the
wood-wind, apply with equal force to the brass.

The use of stopped notes and mutes alters the character of
brass tone. Stopped notes can only be employed on trumpets,
cornets and horns; the shape of trombones and tubas prevents
the hand from being inserted into the bell. Though mutes are
applied indiscriminately to all brass instruments in the orchestra,
tubas rarely possess them. Stopped and muted notes are similar
in quality. On the trumpet, muting a note produces a better tone
than stopping it.

In the horn both methods are employed; single notes are stopped
in short phrases, muted in longer ones. I do not propose to describe
the difference between the two operations in detail, and will leave
the reader to acquire the knowledge for himself, and to form an
opinion as to its importance from his own personal observation.
Sufficient to say that the tone is deadened by both methods,
assuming a wild "crackling" character in forte passages, tender and
dull in piano. Resonance is greatly reduced, the silvery tone of the
instrument is lost and a timbre resembling that of the oboe and
Eng. horn is approached. Stopped notes (con sordino) are marked
+ underneath the note, sometimes followed by O, denoting the
resumption of open sounds, senza sordini. Brass instruments, when
muted, produce an effect of distance.

C. Instruments of little sustaining power.

Plucked strings.

When the usual orchestral string quartet (Vns I, Vns II, Violas,
'Cellos, D. basses) does not make use of the bow, but plucks the
strings with the finger, it becomes to my mind a new and independent

group with its own particular quality of tone. Associated
with the harp, which produces sound in a similar manner, I consider
it separately under the heading of plucked strings.

Note. In this group may be classed the guitar, zither, balalaika; instruments
plucked with a quill, such as the domra,[3] the mandoline etc., all of which may
be used in an orchestra, but have no place in the scope of the present book.

Pizzicato.

Although capable of every degree of power from ff to pp, pizzicato
playing has but small range of expression, and is used chiefly
as a colour effect. On open strings it is resonant and heavy, on
stopped strings shorter and duller; in the high positions it is rather
dry and hard.

Table D on page 31 indicates the range in which pizzicato may
be used on each stringed instrument.

In the orchestra, pizzicato comes into operation in two distinct
ways a) on single notes, b) on double notes and chords. The
fingers of the right hand playing pizz. are far less agile than the bow;
pizz. passages therefore can never be performed as quickly as those
played arco. Moreover, the speed of pizzicato playing depends upon
the thickness of the strings; on the double basses, for instance,
it must always be much slower than on the violins.

In pizzicato chords it is better to avoid open strings, which
produce a more brilliant tone than of covered strings. Chords of
four notes allow of greater freedom and vigour of attack, as
there is no danger of accidentally touching a wrong note. Natural
harmonics played pizz. create a charming effect; the tone is weak
however, and they are chiefly successful on the violoncello.

Harp.

In the orchestra, the harp is almost entirely an harmonic or
accompanying instrument. The majority of scores require only
one harp part, but in recent times composers have written for two
or even three harps which are sometimes compressed into the one part.

Note. Full orchestras should include three or even four harps. My operas
Sadko, The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitesh, and The Golden Cockerel
are designed for two harps, Mlada for three.

The special function of the harp lies in the execution of chords,
and the florid figures springing from them. As only four notes
at the most can be played by each hand, the notes of a chord
should be written close together, with not too great a space between
one hand and the other. The chords must always be broken
(arpeggiato); should the composer wish otherwise he should
notify it (non arpeggiato). In the middle and lower octaves the
resonance of the strings is slightly prolonged, and dies away gradually.
In changes of harmony the player stops the vibration of
the strings with his hands, but, in quick modulations, this method
is not feasible, and the mixture of one chord with another produces
a discordant effect. It follows that more or less rapid figures can
only be realised clearly and neatly in the upper register of the harp,
where the strings are shorter and harder in tone.

As a general rule, in the whole range of the harp:

only the notes of the first to the fourth octave are used; the extreme
notes in both compasses may be employed in special circumstances,
and for doubling in octaves.

The harp is essentially a diatonic instrument, since all chromatic
passages depend on the manipulation of the pedals. For this reason
the harp does not lend itself to rapid modulation, and the orchestrator
is advised to bear this fact in mind. But the difficulty may
be obviated by using two harps alternately. [4]

Note. I would remind the reader that the harp is not capable of double
sharps or double flats. For this reason, certain modulations from one key to
another one, adjacent to it can only be accomplished enharmonically. For
instance, the transition from C flat, G flat or D flat, major to their minor subdominant
chords or keys is not possible owing to double flats. It is therefore

necessary to start enharmonically from the keys of B, F sharp or C sharp,
major. Similarly, on account of double sharps, it is impossible to change from
A sharp, D sharp or G sharp, minor to their respective dominant major chords
or keys; B flat, E flat and A flat, minor must be the starting-points.

The technical operation known as glissando is peculiar to the harp
alone. Taking for granted that the reader is conversant with the
methods of acquiring different scales by means of double-notched
pedals, it will be sufficient to remark that glissando scales produce
a discordant medley of sound owing to the length of time the
strings continue to vibrate, and therefore, as a purely musical
effect, glissando can only be used in the upper octaves, quite piano,
where the sound of the strings is sufficiently clear, yet not too
prolonged. Forte glissando scales, entailing the use of the lower
and middle strings are only permissible as embellishments. Glissando
passages in chords of the seventh and ninth, enharmonically
obtained, are much more common, and as the above reservations
do not apply, every dynamic shade of tone is possible. Chords in
harmonics can only consist of three notes written close together,
two for the left hand and one for the right.

The tender poetic quality of the harp is adapted to every dynamic
shade, but it is never a very powerful instrument, and the
orchestrator should treat it with respect.

At least three, if not four harps in unison are necessary, if
they are to be heard against a full orchestra playing forte. The
more rapidly a glissando passage is played, the louder it will sound.
Harmonic notes on the harp have great charm but little resonance,
and are only possible played quite softly. Speaking generally, the
harp, like the string quartet, pizzicato, is more an instrument of
colour than expression.

Percussion instruments producing determinate
sounds, keyed instruments.

Kettle-drums.

Kettle-drums, indispensable to every theatre and concert orchestra
occupy the most important place in the group of percussion instruments.
A pair of kettle-drums (Timpani), in the tonic and dominant
keys, was the necessary attribute of an orchestra up to, and

including Beethoven's time, but, from the middle of the 19th century
onward, in western Europe and in Russia, an ever-increasing
need was felt for the presence of three or even four kettle-drums,
during the whole course or part of a work. If the expensive
chromatic drum, permitting instant tuning is rarely met with, still,
in the majority of good orchestras, three screw drums are generally
to be found. The composer can therefore take it for granted
that a good timpanist, having three kettle-drums at his command, will
be able to tune at least one of them during a pause of some length.

The limits of possible change in Beethoven's time was considered
to be:

 

Big kettle-drum:

Small kettle-drum

In these days it is difficult to define the precise extent of high
compass in the kettle-drums, as this depends entirely on the size
and quality of the smallest one, of which there are many kinds,
but I advise the composer to select:

Note. A magnificent kettle-drum of very small size was made for my opera-ballet
Mlada; this instrument gave the D♭ of the fourth octave.

Kettle-drums are capable of every dynamic shade of tone, from
thundering fortissimo to a barely perceptible pianissimo. In tremolando
they can execute the most gradual crescendo, diminuendo,
the sfp and morendo.

To deaden the sound, a piece of cloth is generally placed on
the skin of the drum, according to the instruction: timpani coperti (muffled drums).

Piano and Celesta.

The use of a piano in the orchestra (apart from pianoforte concertos)
belongs almost entirely to the Russian school [5]. The object
is two-fold: the quality of tone, either alone, or combined with

Table D.
Pizzicato.

The black notes are dry and hard, without resonance, and should only be
used when doubled with the wood-winds.

* Table E.
Glockenspiel, celesta, xylophone.

*) This note is often missing.

that of the harp, is made to imitate a popular instrument, the guzli,
(as in Glinka), or a soft peal of bells. When the piano forms part
of an orchestra, not as a solo instrument, an upright is preferable
to a grand, but today the piano it is gradually being superseded by
the celesta, first used by Tschaikovsky. In the celesta, small steel
plates take the place of strings, and the hammers falling on them
produce a delightful sound, very similar to the glockenspiel. The
celesta is only found in full orchestras; when it is not available
it should be replaced by an upright piano, and not the glockenspiel.

Glockenspiel, Bells, Xylophone.

The glockenspiel (campanelli) may be made of steel bars, or
played with a keyboard. The first type is the more satisfactory
and possesses greater resonance. The use of the glockenspiel is
similar to the celesta, but its tone is more brilliant and penetrating.
Big bells in the shape of hollow discs or metal tubes [6],
or real church bells of moderate size may be considered more as
theatrical properties than orchestral instruments.

The xylophone is a species of harmonica composed of strips or
cylinders of wood, struck with two little hammers. It produces a
clattering sound, both powerful and piercing.

To complete this catalogue of sounds mention should be made
of the strings playing col legno, that is with the wood or back of
the bow. The sound produced is similar to the xylophone, and
gains in quality as the number of players is increased.

A table is appended showing the range of the celesta, glockenspiel and xylophone.

Percussion instruments producing indefinite
sounds.

Instruments in this group, such as triangle, castanets, little bells,
tambourine, switch or rod (Rute, Ger.), side or military drum, cymbals,
bass drum, and chinese gong do not take any harmonic or
melodic part in the orchestra, and can only be considered as
ornamental instruments pure and simple. They have no intrinsic

musical meaning, and are just mentioned by the way. The first
three may be considered as high, the four following as medium,
and the last two as deep instruments. This may serve as a guide
to their use with percussion instruments of determinate sounds,
playing in corresponding registers.

Comparison of resonance in orchestral groups and
combination of different tone qualities.

In comparing the resonance of the respective groups of sound-sustaining
instruments we arrive at the following approximate conclusions:

In the most resonant group, the brass, the strongest instruments
are the trumpets, trombones and tuba. In loud passages the horns
are only one-half as strong, 1 Trumpet = 1 Trombone = 1 Tuba
= 2 Horns. Wood-wind instruments, in forte passages, are twice
as weak as the horns, 1 Horn = 2 Clarinets = 2 Oboes = 2 Flutes
= 2 Bassoons; but, in piano passages, all wind-instruments, wood
or brass are of fairly equal balance.

It is more difficult to establish a comparison in resonance between
wood-wind and strings, as everything depends on the number of the
latter, but, in an orchestra of medium formation, it may be taken for
granted that in piano passages, the whole of one department (all
1st Violins or all 2nd Violins etc.) is equivalent in strength to one wind
instrument, (Violins I = 1 Flute etc.), and, in forte passages, to two
wind instruments, (Violins I = 2 Flutes = 1 Oboe + 1 Clarinet, etc.).

It is still harder to form a comparison with instruments of little
sustaining power, for too great a diversity in production and emission
of sound exists. The combined force of groups of sustained resonance
easily overpowers the strings played pizz. or col legno, the piano
played softly, or the celesta. As regards the glockenspiel, bells, and
xylophone, their emphatic tone will easily prevail over other groups in
combination. The same may be said of the kettle-drums with their
ringing, resounding quality, and also of other subsidiary instruments.

The influence of the timbre of one group on another is noticeable
when the groups are doubled; for instance, when the wood-wind
timbre is closely allied to the strings on the one hand, and to the
brass on the other. Re-enforcing both, the wind thickens the strings

and softens the brass. The strings do not blend so well with the
brass, and when the two groups are placed side by side, each is
heard too distinctly. The combination of the three different timbres
in unison produces a rich, mellow and coherent tone.

All, or several wind instruments in combination will absorb one
department of added strings:

   

2 Fl. + 2 Ob. + Vns I,

or: 2 Ob. + 2 Cl. + Violas,

or: 2 Cl. + 2 Fag. + 'Cellos.

One department of strings added to the wood-wind in unison
produces a sweet coherent quality, the wood-wind timbre still
predominating; but the addition of one wind instrument to all or
part of the strings in unison, only thickens the resonance of the
latter, the wood-wind timbre being lost in the process:

   

Vns I + Vns II + 1 Ob.,

or: Violas + 'Cellos + 1 Cl.

or: 'Cellos + D. basses + 1 Fag.

Muted strings do not combine so well with wood-wind, as the
two tone qualities remain distinct and separate. Uniting plucked
strings and percussion with instruments of sustained resonance
results in the following: wind instruments, wood and brass, strengthen
and clarify pizzicato strings, harp, kettle-drums and percussion
generally, the latter lending a touch of relief to the tone of the
wood-wind. Uniting plucked strings and percussion with bowed
instruments does not produce such a satisfactory blend, both qualities
being heard independently. The combination of plucked strings
with percussion alone, is excellent; the two blend perfectly, and the
consequent increase in resonance yields an admirable effect.

The relationship which exists between string harmonics and the
flute or piccolo constitutes a link between the two groups in the
upper range of the orchestra. Moreover, the timbre of the viola
may be vaguely compared to the middle register of the bassoon
and the lowest compass of the clarinet; hence, in the medium
orchestral range, a point of contact is established between the
quartet of strings and the wood-wind.

The bassoon and horn provide the connection between woodwind
and brass, these two instruments being somewhat analogous

in character when played piano or mezzo-forte; the flute also, in its
lowest register, recalls the pianissimo trumpet tone. Stopped
and muted notes in horns and trumpets are similar in quality to
the oboe and Eng. horn, and blend tolerably well with the latter
instrument.

Concluding this survey of orchestral groups I add a few remarks
which seem to me of special importance.

The principal part in music is undertaken by three instrumental
groups of sustained resonance, representing the three primary elements,
melody, harmony and rhythm. Instruments of little sustaining
power, though sometimes used independently, are chiefly employed
for ornament and colour; instruments producing indeterminate sounds
play no melodic or harmonic part, their functions being purely
rhythmical.

By glancing at the order in which the six orchestral groups are
placed, strings, wood-wind, brass, plucked strings, percussion producing
definite, and those producing indefinite sounds, the reader
will be able to determine the part played by each in the art of
orchestration, from the secondary standpoint of colour and expression.
As regards expression, the strings come first, and the expressive
capacity of the other groups diminishes in the above order, colour
being the only attribute of the last group of percussion instruments.

The same order obtains from the standpoint of general effect in
orchestration. We can listen to strings for an almost indefinite
period of time without getting tired, so varied are their characteristics
(vide the number of string quartets, suites, serenades etc. written
for strings alone). The addition of a single group of strings will
add lustre to a passage for wind instruments. On the other hand,
the quality of wind instruments soon becomes wearisome; the same
may be said of plucked strings, and also percussion of every kind
which should only be employed at reasonable intervals in orchestral
composition.

It cannot be denied that the constant use of compound timbres,
in pair's, in three's etc. eliminates characteristics of tone, and produces
a dull, neutral texture, whereas the employment of simple,
elementary combinations gives infinitely greater scope for variety in
colour.