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Vegetable:

The archaeologic record of plants utilized by the prehistoric inhabitants
of the Chaco area is necessarily much less complete than for
animals and minerals. Fortunately, however, not all portions of plants
were consumed by man, weather, decay, and time. Charred woods, imprints
in plaster and adobe, nut shells, rinds, stems, leaves, husks,
bark, fibers, cobs, pollen, meal, etc., have allowed the ethnobotanist to
provide the archaeologist with a considerable number of identifications.
To date, the following plants have been recovered from excavations
and cliff cavities in the Chaco Canyon:[14]

Arrow reed (?)—No botanical identification. Possibly arrow grass
(Triglochin maritimum), arrow head (Sagittaria arifolia), or arrow
weed (Pluchea sericea). None of these has been noted in the
canyon area. (See Reeds.)

Beans (red) (?)—No botanical identification. Probably a Phaseolus,
a number of which are wild in New Mexico in addition to the cultivated
kidney and tepary beans. Beans and pods found in cliff
cavity.

Cane cactus (Opuntia arborescens)—Cane or whip cactus (also known
as cholla, candelabrum cactus, prickly pear, etc.) is scattered over
the entire Chaco area. It was used in roofing, and for implements;
also, probably, for food.

Cocklebur (Xanthium commune)—Burs found in definitely prehistoric
strata. This is contrary to belief that the common cocklebur was
introduced into New Mexico. No known prehistoric use; possibly
the seeds were eaten.

Cotton (Gossypium sp.)—Species seemingly G. hopi. This was probably
cultivated to a slight extent.[15] No wild cotton is known from
northern New Mexico. Lint, seeds, and a boll have been found.
Used for cordage, textiles, and on ceremonial objects.

Cottonwood or poplar (Populus sp.)—Probably P. wislizeni, P. acuminata,
and P. angustifolia, all of which grow in the San Juan basin.
Formerly more abundant along the Chaco River. Logs, branches,
sticks, and charcoal have been recovered. Used for pueblo construction,
implements, and firewood.

Dogbane (Apocynum sp.)—Kidder mentions Apocynum string from the
Chaco. This fiber-providing plant could have been obtained in the
area.

Gourd (Cucurbita sp.)—Not identified. Probably C. foetidissima.
Rinds found in cliff cavities. Use unknown.

Greasewood or chico (Sarcobatus vermiculatus)—Abundant in the
Chaco Canyon. Used for implements and firewood.

Horsetail or scouring rush (Equisetum sp.)—Probably E. arvense, E.
hiemale, and E. laevigatum, all of which grow along streams and
in cienegas in the San Juan basin. They have not been noted in
the Chaco Canyon, but probably were present in prehistoric times.
Used in roofing and matting.

Juniper or cedar (Juniperus sp.)—Rocky Mountain (J. scopulorum),
Utah (J. utahensis), and one-seeded (J. monosperma) junipers are
well represented in the Chaco vegetation. The Utah and one-seeded

species are most abundant. Archaeologic evidence indicates use for
pueblo construction, firewood, torches, implements, cordage, and
textiles. The gum also was used in ornamental inlays, etc. Probably
the junipers likewise provided food, dyestuffs, and medicine.

Maize or corn (Zea mays)—Leaves, stalks, quids of silk, cobs, kernels,
meal, and pollen have been recovered. The evidence in hand would
indicate a flint corn, although quite probably flour and dent corns
were cultivated also. Cobs having 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 rows have
been reported. Probably the 4-row count was erroneous. Cobs
with 8, 10, and 12 rows are most numerous. The plant was used
for food, in ceremonies, and for fuel.

Manzanita (?)—An implement of manzanita wood (Arctostaphylos
sp.) has been reported doubtfully. No manzanita grows in the
Chaco Canyon, but it is fairly common in the Chuska Mountains.

Mesquite (?)—A broken piece of carved wood, presumably mesquite
(Prosopis sp.), has been reported by Pepper.[16] No mesquite is
found in northern New Mexico closer than an occasional shrub in
the valley of the Puerco of the East.

Mountain Mahogany (Cercocarpus parvifolius)—Doubtfully identified
as material of various implements. Grows in the Chuska mountains.

Pepper or chili (?)—Pods of a pepper (Capsicum) appearance have
been found in one Chaco excavation. Capsicum does not grow wild
in northern New Mexico, and presumably was introduced to the
Pueblos by the Spaniards.

Pine (Pinus ponderosa scopulorum)—The western yellow pine has but
recently died out in the main ruin area of the Chaco Canyon.
Possibly a considerable stand of this pine once existed in and near
the canyon. Logs were commonly used for vigas and posts.

Piñon (Pinus edulis)—The piñon is found scattered over the Chaco
area, though apparently not so much as formerly. Wood, charcoal,
ash, gum or resin, nuts, and hulls are commonly found in
excavations. The piñon wood was used in pueblo construction and
for firewood; its nut served for food. The gum was used in the
same fashion as that of juniper.

Pumpkins (Cucurbita moschata and C. pepo)—These pumpkins (normally
referred to as "squashes" by archaeologists) were apparently
the only cucurbits cultivated in the Chaco Canyon. Stems and
rinds have been recovered.

Reeds (?)—This term, along with rushes, has been overworked by
archaeologists. There is a suspicion that many items loosely
classified as reeds may be cattail (Typha), bulrush (Scirpus), rush

(Juncus), sedge (Carex), and other non-grasses. The carrizo or
cane reed (Phragmites communis or P. phragmites), which is found
in the moist localities of the Chaco area, was used in roof construction,
matting, and for arrow shafts. It is possibly the "arrow
reed" of some writers.

Rushes (?)—One may not rely upon the botanical exactness of items
referred to as rushes. True rushes (Juncus) of several species are
found in the pond areas of the Chaco plateau, and formerly were
probably in the Chaco Canyon proper. Rushes were used for
roofing and matting.

Sacaton (Sporobolus sp.)—The sacaton grasses, also known as bunch
grass, dropseed, etc., grow over much of the Chaco area. They
were used prehistorically in the construction of roofs, in matting,
and probably for food. S. cryptandrus, S. wrightii, and S. airoides
are the most important species in this area.

Sedges (Carex sp.)—A number of species, normally restricted to moist
areas. Used in the same fashions as rushes.

Spruce (Picea sp.)—A few timbers of spruce have been recovered from
Chaco ruins. Probably both P. parryana and P. engelmanni are
represented. These grow at present in the higher mountains.

Sunflower (?)—Remains of wild sunflower have been mentioned from
Chaco ruins. These may be true sunflower (Helianthus), Helianthella,
or crownbeard (Verbesina). All three grow in the Chaco
area, although Helianthus anuus may have been introduced at a
comparatively late time. Probably used for food.

Walnut (Juglans sp.)—At present no wild walnuts grow within a
hundred and fifty miles of the Chaco Canyon.[17] Shells of both the
canyon or cliff walnut (J. rupestris) and J. major have been found
as elements in necklaces.

Willow (Salix sp.)—Formerly rather common in the Chaco Canyon.
Poles, sticks, and twigs have been recovered. Used in roof construction,
for implements, and basketry.

Yucca (Yucca sp.)—Both the datil (Y. baccata) and the amole (Y.
glauca) grow in the Chaco area. Leaves, pods, seeds, and fibers
are commonly found in excavations. The yuccas were used for
cordage, sandals, basketry, etc. Probably the fruit was used for
food, and the roots as a soap.

Judging from the ethnobotany of the modern Zuñi, Tewa, and
Navajo, hundreds of different species of wild plants (in addition to
those discussed above) must have been used by the prehistoric peoples
of the Chaco Canyon. Most of these plants undoubtedly grew in the
Chaco Canyon area, but probably hunters, traders, warriors, and travelers
brought to the Chaco many seeds, fleshy fruits, nuts, roots,
medicinal and ceremonial herbs, dye stuffs, woods, etc., from considerable
distances. Furthermore, there is the possibility that the Chaco
peoples indulged in seasonal treks to the Chuska, San Juan, Jemez,
San Mateo, and Zuñi mountains areas—or even farther—to harvest
piñon nuts, gather berries, dig roots, etc. Among the items available
in the Chaco drainage basin are the following:[18]

• Food: Seeds of amaranth (Amaranthus), sagebrush (Artemisia),
  goosefoot (Chenopodium), dodder (Cuscuta), cacti, sand bunchgrass
  (Oryzopsis hymenoides), purslane (Portulaca), sand dropseed
  (Sporobolus cryptandrus), crownbeard (Verbesina enceliodes),
  and vetch (Vicia), parched or in gruels or breadstuffs. Roots,
  tubers, bulbs, etc., of wild onion (Allium), Mariposa lily (Calochortus),
  Indian parsnip (Cymopterus), spurge (Euphorbia), wild
  carrots (Daucus pussilus and Lomatium orientale), wild celery
  (Phellopterus montanus), wild potato (Solanum fendleri), and sand
  verbena (Abronia fragrans). Greens from leaves, efflorescence,
  and stalks, of amaranth (Amaranthus), bee plant (Cleome),
  cañaigre (Rumex), Acanthochiton wrightii, milkweed (Asclepias),
  saltbush (Atriplex), and purslane (Portulaca). Various
  pulpy fruits of the barrel cactus (Echinocereus), juniper (Juniperus),
  tomatilla (Lycium), prickly pear (Opuntia), piñon (Pinus
  edulis), wild cherry (Cerasus), sumac (Rhus), wild currant
  (Ribes), wild rose (Rosa), bramble (Rubus), and datil (Yucca
  baccata). Acorns likewise are available in the foothills, especially
  of the Utah oak (Quercus utahensis) and of the Gambel oak (Q.
  gambelii).

• Medicinal: Yarrow (Achillea), Astragalus, Aster, joint fir (Ephedra),
  wild buckwheat (Eriogonum), spurge (Euphorbia), Gilia, snakeweed
  (Gutierrezia), evening primrose (Oenothera), sagebrush
  (Artemisia), tule (Scirpus), Penstemon, Phlox, rabbit bush
  (Chrysothamnus), winter fat (Eurotia), and meadow rue
  (Thalictrum).

• Dyes: Alder (Alnus), saltbush (Atriplex), barberry (Berberis), rabbit
  bush (Chrysothamnus), cliff rose (Cowania), larkspur (Delphinium),
  rubber plant (Hymenoxys), juniper (Juniperus), four
  o'clock (Mirabilis), prickly pear (Opuntia), mistletoe (Phoraden-
  

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  Map III—Probable Location of Mineral Sources

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  dron), piñon (Pinus edulis), sumac (Rhus), cañaigre (Rumex),
  and cota (Thalesperma).

• Fibers, matting, and baskets: Dogbane (Apocynum), carrizo (Phragmites
  communis), rushes (Juncus), horsetail (Equisetum), sedges
  (Carex), sacaton (Sporobolus), willow (Salix), juniper (Juniperus),
  and Yucca.

• Miscellaneous: Most of the plants commonly used in building and for
  firewood have been mentioned previously. Needles could be obtained
  from yuccas and cacti. Soap is provided by the amole
  (Yucca glauca). Piñons, junipers, and other conifers, yield gums
  and resins. Smoking material could be secured from sumacs,
  willows, and Nicotiana attenuata.