II
The refined evidence required for distinguishing same-face fonts can
be divided into internal and external categories depending on whether a
potential discriminant is imported from a dissimilar face, or whether it is
a variation within the stylistic parameters of the face. In both categories, a
discriminant is two-dimensional, and consists of the qualitative stylistic
difference combined with the quantitative proportion of differing letters in
a sort. External discriminants are easily detected because of the clash in the
stylistic features noted in earlier discussion, and are imported into a font
through processes of fouling, replenishment, and large-scale mixing of two
fonts. The proportion of wrong-face letters in a sort usually indicates which
process is involved: a high proportion of wrong-face letters in a given sort
suggests a high probability of replenishment, and conversely, a small, or
better yet, almost infinitesimal proportion suggests that fouling is
responsible.
Mixing introduces significant proportions of wrong-face or stylistically
different letters into most sorts of a font. It is impossible to state fixed
proportions or rules that apply to all fonts.
The distinction between replenishment and fouling is based upon the
assumption that replenishment is responsible for the presence of abnormal
(wrong-face or miscast) letters in significant quantities in a population
which retains a varying proportion of normal letters in the depleted sorts.
The converse is taken to indicate fouling since the overwhelming majority
of letters in a sort consists of normal letters. The distinction can have
serious practical implications: the former come from outside the shop and
merely provide an additional discriminant in a single font; however, the
latter are from within the shop, and indicate that the font belongs to a
printer with two or more fonts. In turn, this permits the narrowing of the
field of candidates to such printers and provides an additional criteria to
guide the search for the printer of a section of a shared book. The correct
candidate will use two fonts that either could produce or actually do exhibit
an appropriate degree of
mutual cross-contamination.[10] The
replenishment process produced four categories of external wrong-face or
miscast capitals, ligatures and lower-case letters. Although many miscast
letters are in the correct-face and hence internal discriminants in a technical
sense, in most instances they present such a striking contrast to properly
formed letters that they warrant classification as external discriminants. As
a general rule, potential discriminants must be checked against the same
letters in other printers' fonts to verify that they are abnormal for the
typeface. The on-going process of piecemeal replenishment usually will
have produced quantitative differences in the proportions of replenished
abnormal and original letters in same-face fonts.
Wrong-face capitals are the most easily detected external
discriminants and typically are produced by replenishment of a Y-font with
S-face capitals.
The latter are of a slightly larger design scale but are cast on roughly the
same pica body size as a Y-font and thus do not distort baseline
evenness.
[11] Capitals exhibiting
radical stylistic differences, as noted above in regard to the symmetrical
Y-face and the oversized awkward S-face 'M', are difficult to overlook
even when separated by pages, and other wrong-face capitals with minor
stylistic differences become obvious when juxtaposed with their normal
counterparts. Juxtaposition with normal tall letters and ligatures likewise
calls attention to differences in height. The difficulty of locating samples of
original or replenished upper-case letters varies with the kind of text: prose
texts often require a cover-to-cover search to produce a few samples while
verse texts usually produce a plethora of samples of a replenished
upper-case letter plus remnants of the original. Thomas Purfoot's Y-font in
The Fawne Q1-Q2 (STC17483-4, A-D) provides a
clear example of extensive replenishment with S-face capitals and the
proportions which emerge. In this alternating verse/prose text, capitals tend
to be concentrated in verse pages. The awkward S-face 'M' appears in Q2
seven times before and three times immediately after the original Y-face
'M' which is first seen at B2:33 and then at C4:38 for two appearances in
contrast to 26 appearances of the replenished 'M'. In higher frequency
sorts, a page or two may provide an adequate number of samples.
Seventeen replenished S-face 'A', for example, appear in D2v, with one
conveniently juxtaposed at D3:11 to an original 'A' at D3:10. Or, the actual
count may be low but revealing, as on B1v of Q1, where two replenished
'P' (B1v:1,21) appear amidst four originals (B1v:7,15,21,34), and on C1,
where two replenished 'P' (C1:23) and three originals (C1:24,31) are
juxtaposed; and the S-face 'S' at (Q1) B1:12,28 vs a normal 'S' at B1:20.
A difficult situation occurs when the sample population is so
small in one sort that replenishment must be inferred from the contextual
replenishment that is obvious in other sorts. For example, an original 'R'
appears at (Q1 and Q2) B1v:32, and replenished letters at (Q1) B2v:9,
C2v:23, 27, and in Q2 at B2v: 8,22, C3v:22. When no sample of the
original letter can be found to provide a basis for comparison, a close
examination may reveal a basis for inferring replenishment from wrong-size
criteria. For example, the 'N' sort in Purfoot-Y1 appears to have been
totally replenished; it is taller than the Y-face 'G' (2.8mm vs 2.75mm) and
equal in height to medium S-face letters such as the 'A B D F R' and it
usually rides low on the baseline.
[12]
However, a survey of other fonts reveals that this capital 'N' is unique in
that it occurs as the normal letter in both S- and Y-fonts. All other S- and
Y-face capitals differ in design and size.
In some instances, proportions such as those noted in the
replenishment of Purfoot-Y1 with wrong-face capitals may be deceptive. As
a general rule, once the possibility of replenishment because of wrong-face
capitals is entertained, the lower-case letters and ligatures must be checked
to verify the correct-face and then be confirmed in another book. Nicholas
Okes's S-font (1607), for example, was purchased with Guyot capitals, but
the lower-case letters and ligatures are S-face except for the medium
'ſſi' and 'ffi' ligatures that somehow slipped in.[13] Similarly, the different proportions
caused
by fouling as opposed
to replenishment can create the impression that the latter is responsible; the
cross-contamination of Eld-S and Eld-Y1 illustrates this problem. The odd
method of setting the speech prefixes in
Sejanus (STC14782,
1605) with a pica capital followed by small capitals (as on
B3v:5,6,7,8,9,21) put a severe strain on the S-font 'S A T' sorts and
occasioned relatively high-frequency appearances of Y-face letters in these
sorts. Without checking the font in another book, the question of whether
these wrong-face capitals intruded by replenishment or by fouling remains
unresolved. The compositor(s) seems to have attempted to distribute
correctly, since the proportion of Y1-capitals seems to decrease noticeably
in later gatherings of
Sejanus, but it must be borne in mind
that
the demands of the text on the affected sorts can vary significantly among
gatherings. Hence, the decrease can be more apparent than real. The
presence of the large proportion of a Y-face 'S' in Eld-S in
Sejanus is an example. This 'S' is about 0.2mm shorter
(2.65mm vs 2.85mm) than the correct-face letter with a diagonal stroke that
is closer to the horizontal. The letter is found throughout the book, but
primarily in speech prefixes. A check of later books reveals that, in fact,
fouling was the source of the Y-face 'S'. A second potential discriminant
in Eld-S is seen in the shorter asymmetrical Guyot 'S' in which the bottom
counter is noticeably larger than the top and the diagonal bends tightly into
the shoulder (see
Low Countries, Fig. 203, p. 268). Its rate
of
appearance of about 3-4 per gathering in
Sejanus (B1v:27,
B3:24, B4:28, B4v:19) suggests fouling, and indeed, that is confirmed by
its apparent failure to appear in later Eld-S books (
Fearful
News
STC21511, 1606;
A Brand Taken From the Fire STC5704,
new
STC5693.5, 1606) although these prose texts required fewer capitals and
provide a marginally adequate sample. The appearance of this
Guyot 'S' in Eld-Y1 (
The Malcontent Q1 STC17479 [1604],
B1v:24, C2:21, C2v:24) in mid-1604 and later in
Sejanus
suggests that Eld distributed a small batch of these letters into Eld-Y1
which fouled Eld-S along with the normal Y-face 'S' during the setting of
Sejanus. The Guyot 'S' could have easily been purged from
Eld-S because of its radically different style; however, it remained resident
in Eld-Y1 where it is equally obvious. In contrast, there is clear evidence
of replenishment in the 'A' sort. In addition to the foul-case Y-face 'A'
(
Sej, B2v:2,3,26), the sort includes a relatively new batch of
S-face 'A' that print boldly with a sharply defined offset-right peak at the
apex (
Sej, B2v:2,11,21,27,30, B3:22,26,27); the older letters
have a worn, rounded apex (B2v:7,8,13,26).
In the absence of obvious stylistic differences, variations in size
provide the primary clue to the presence of wrong-face capitals. The
general rule about cross-checking potential wrong-face discriminants against
other fonts is especially relevant here, since early pica typefaces exhibit a
normal range of variation of height in the capitals and ligatures which could
be mistaken as potentially significant.[14] For example, a survey at high
magnification of the capitals in Eld-Y1 could lead to the false impression
that large-scale replenishment in the capitals produced a varying range in
height of about 0.3mm, which, if unique to Eld-Y1, would certainly be a
powerful font discriminant ('K' = 2.4mm, 'G' = 2.75mm). A similar but
smaller variation in
height can be seen in the capitals and ligatures in S-fonts amounting to
about 0.15mm. S-face capitals and ligatures are taller than their Y-face and
Guyot counterparts. In all instances, these variations are integral to the sets
of punches from which the typefaces derived. The precise measurements of
height variations in originals are somewhat affected by printing effects and
four centuries of paper deterioration, but can be confirmed as integral to a
typeface in a unique specimen of the Claude Garamond pica seen in Stanley
Morison's
John Fell, the University Press and the 'Fell'
Types
(p. 133). The specimen is an actual impression (not a reproduction)
produced by types newly cast in the Garamond pica matrices in the Fell
collection and composed by hand (and so for the rest of the book). As such,
it provides a most accurate record of an early typeface unaffected by
damage or deterioration.
[15] Variations
in size were also introduced during the
copying of an original letter by a particular punchcutter hired to replace
damaged or worn punches. Given the striking similarity in size variations
of capitals and ligatures among many pica fonts of the period, it seems
likely that they all derived from just a few sets of punches. Nonetheless,
height variations in capitals and ligatures can provide useful discriminants.
For example, the S-face 'I' in Eld-Y1 exhibits greater height and
exaggerated serifs, but it is often indistinguishable with the naked eye from
heavily inked normal letters. Its presence in nearly equal proportion to the
normal 'I' is probably attributable to replenishment, even though fouling is
a possibility because of the heavy strain on the sort in the highly reflective
Montaigne's
Essayes (STC18041, 1603). However, it is also
present in two other 1603 books (
Nero STC12551, and
A
Treatise . . . Antichrist STC7120) and may have been introduced
into
the font previously, since the printing
sequence of the three books is unclear. The S-face 'I' remains resident in
the Eld-Y1 throughout its lifetime. Similarly, Eld-S was replenished with
Y-face 'I' early on. Later replenishment with S-face 'I' has the effect of
diminishing the proportion of the Y-face 'I' in a growing population of
correct-face letters. This combination in the 'I' sort provides a discriminant
between Eld-S and other S-fonts such as John Windet's and Richard Field's,
which use a single size of correct-face 'I'.
Miscast capitals and ligatures occur both as original abnormalities in
a font and as products of replenishment. Antecedent to their appearance in
a font is the history of the set of punches or sets of matrices from which
they derived. Due to the nature of the type trade in the 16th century, a
somewhat limited source of new type forced a homogeneity among fonts
which sometimes levels potential discriminants from miscasting. Thus, a
miscast letter is not necessarily unique to a single printer's font, since many
printers were probably acquiring type from the same few founders during
the period. The most obvious evidence of this consists of the small 'W',
which is commonly the only version of the letter found in most pica fonts,
and several miscast ligatures which are found in these fonts from the 1550's
onward. However, given the number of possible combinations and
proportions of normal and miscast letters across the upper- and lower-cases
and ligatures, composites of same-face fonts
usually reveal significant discriminants. "Miscast" is used here
generically to denote several kinds of deviation from the normal that are
attributable to mistakes at various stages in the type production
process.
[16] Technically, "miscasting"
denotes a flaw in a type caused during the casting stage by the incomplete
flow of molten metal into the impression of the letter in the matrix. An
example of a possible miscasting occurs in Eld-S in the defective variant F2
which lacks the serif on the cross (
Sej, B1:13, B1v: 14,31,
B2:5, B2v:32 vs properly cast F1 at B1:29). However, a misstruck matrix
could produce a similar defect: if the punch was not perfectly perpendicular
to the face of the blank matrix at the instant of impact, a shallower
impression would result on the periphery of the letter opposite to the
direction of the punch's slant.
[17] The
commonness of the defective F2 suggests a misstruck matrix rather than
type-caster error, since it appears also in Creede-3 (
Romeo &
Juliet Q2 STC22323 [1599], B3:9,23, C2:11 vs normal F1 at
B2v:5,10, B3:24) and Creede-4 (
The Regiment of the Church
STC1827 [1606], H5:10); and in William White's mixed font (hereafter
designated "-M") where most are defective (
Love's Labor
Lost
STC22294 [1598], A2:1, A3:31,34, A4:26 vs normal F1 at A3v:32,
A4:34). In contrast, the 'F' sort in (John) Windet-S and (Richard) Field-S
is normal. The existence of both the normal and the defective letter suggests
that at least two matrices fed the 'F' sort in these S-fonts. Other kinds of
flaws can be attributed to earlier stages of type production. The cutting of
a new punch could produce a difference in the width of the metal elements
that form the face of the letter so that it prints bolder or finer than normal,
as in the fine-printing variants E2 (
LLL, B2:20,21,22) and
S2
(
LLL, A3:16,21, A3v:2,21,36) that appear in White's
(White-M), John Danter's (Danter-M), Thomas Creede's (Creede-2,
Creede-3), and
other mixed fonts. Similarly, the justification of the strike by filing down
its face could produce a difference in the height-to-paper relative to the
other types in a font with the result that the abnormal type protrudes beyond
the normal letters after pounding and lockup in the chase and prints boldly.
Numerous examples of such bold-printing lower-case letters occur in the
fonts surveyed here. Danter-M was replenished with several B-face
lower-case letters which are not only obviously too large, but print quite
boldly because of the difference in their height-to-paper (see below).
Conversely, the impression of a letter in one strike might be shallower than
in the strikes of the other letters; the impression could be deepened only by
further striking with the same punch. However, if the set of strikes was
purchased and then justified elsewhere (a quite common practice), the
letters produced from the strike would print lightly because of the reduced
height-to-paper. Furthermore, the
variations in horizontal and vertical orientation of letters deriving from the
same matrix suggest that a matrix could shift position in the mold during
the opening and closing process for jettisoning a newly cast type.
[18]
The most common and useful kind of abnormality consists of the
misalignment of a letter in the vertical or horizontal planes so that it either
leans or is positioned improperly at the baseline. For example, a strike
could be taken with the punch so misaligned vertically that no amount of
justifying the strike by filing its long sides could produce a matrix with a
correctly
aligned letter. Letters cast in the matrix would inevitably lean. A
replacement strike from the original punch could be improperly justified at
the ends by a new workman to produce a slight displacement from the
baseline as established in the original set of matrices. Letters cast in the
replacement matrix inevitably would ride high or low at the baseline when
mixed in with letters cast in the original matrix.
[19] However, this kind of evidence
must be
approached with caution. Since moveable types are free to shift in relation
to other letters, especially when set without leading (a very thin strip of
lead set between lines), numerous samples should be examined before
concluding that a letter is improperly positioned in the horizontal plane. At
times, the displacement is so exaggerated and pervasive that there can be
no doubt. For example, the 'G' found in Eld-S in
Sejanus and
in other S-fonts is so low (0.25mm) that the baseline cuts through
the white space inside the letter ("counter"). This low-rider 'G' appears
foul-case in Eld-Y1 as a two dimensional discriminant: both wrong-face and
miscast. The miscast E3 in Creede-3 (
R&J Q2, A4:19,
B1:4,
B2v:18,21, C2:35) rides low (0.25mm) and leans right to the point that the
adjacent letter sits on the tip of the bottom serif and is easily distinguished
from the normal erect letters (B2:37, B2v:37, C1:2, D4: 14, D4v:14,22).
The same miscasting appears in White-M (
LLL, A3v:28)
along
with the fine-printing erect E2 noted above (B2:20,21,22). In contrast, all
of the 'E' sort is erect in Eld-S and Windet-S. Creede-4 has about equal
proportions of a normal erect E1 and an oversized E4 (3.05mm high)
(
Regiment STC1827, B1v:29) which positions correctly on
the
base-line. Variant D2 which leans left is quite common to S-fonts but
occurs in differing proportions. It is the only version in Eld-S
(
Sej, B3:4,14,25) and Creede-4, seems to be the only S-face
'D' in White-M (
LLL, A4:3, B1:29,36, B1v:10,11), and
seems
slightly in the majority in Creede-3 (
R&J Q2, leaning:
A3v:19,21, B1v: 20, D3:16; normal D1: A3v:34, B1v:29, C3v:8, D3v:3).
Normal D1 is exclusive in (Simon) Stafford-EF. A fairly uncommon
miscast T2, in which the thin cross slants downward to the right, seems in
the majority in White-M (
LLL, A2:10,12,13,24,25), while
the
sort in Creede-3 is evenly distributed between the normal T1
(
R&J Q2, A3v:1,2,3, A4v:5,6) and slanted cross T2
(A4v:14, 20,29); it is infrequent in (Valentine) Simmes-S (
Richard
III Q1 STC22314 [1597], E4v:19,26), but dominates Danter-M
(
Titus Andronicus STC22328 [1594], C1:22) along with the
foul-case 68mm 'T' (C1:16), and does not appear in Eld-S, Windet-S,
Field-S or Creede-4.
The divergence in same-face fonts caused by acquisition and
replenishment from different sources at different times is suggested by the
combinations which occur. Eld's low-rider 'G' appears along with low-rider
'B C F K L M P R T', but correctly aligned 'I', in Creede-4
(Antichrist, STC7120, [2]H—M; Monsieur
d'Olive STC4983 [1606], A, B(i)). Some of these letters appear in
Eld-S, but are in closer alignment with normal letters, suggesting that the
two original fonts were purchased from separate foundries, one of which
used several misjustified replacement matrices to produce Creede-4. Eld
probably replenished from this foundry, but the misjustified matrices were,
by chance, more closely aligned to the matrices used by the first founder.
On the other hand, the 'G' is normal in White-M (
LLL) and
Creede-3 (
R&J Q2). Windet-S and Field-S, in contrast,
use
all non-deviant capitals, suggesting a single uniformly justified set of
matrices at one foundry. It is frequently impossible to determine whether
a letter is miscast although repeated examination creates an impression of
a distinct abnormality. A small portion of White's 'C' sort rides low
(0.2mm) (
LLL, A3v:26, A2v:29, A2:8) while most are
normally positioned (the Creede-3 sort is similar), but the effect is not so
pronounced as to imply miscasting, since the baseline is normally distorted
in this mixed font. Yet the fact that some print this way is a potential
discriminant, since all of Eld's are aligned correctly. Moreover, the
perceived difference may simply result from replenishment, since new
clean-printing letters are bound to look different than old worn versions; the
resulting layers of newness also are a potential
discriminant.
[20]
In addition to misalignment in the vertical and horizontal planes, the
two letters forming a poorly cut ligature can be improperly oriented with
respect to each other. These are especially prevalent in S-fonts, where
variants occur in which one letter leans and produces a narrower gap
between the letters at the baseline, or one letter is above the baseline. The
skewed letters of ligatures make clear the difficulty of cutting a punch with
perfectly aligned letters.[21] S-fonts
seem to vary in the number of types available in their ligature sorts. Eld-S,
Simmes-S, Field-S and Creede-4 almost exclusively set an 'ſſ' or
'ſſi', while Windet-S frequently resorts to alternate settings with
combinations of 's', tall-ſ, 'ſi', and 'i'. However, the
'ſſi',
'ſ ſi' and 'ſſl' ligatures occur at low-frequency so that locating one in
a text is difficult at times. But the miscast 'ſt' with the leaning 't' is so
pervasive in S-fonts that the
discriminating factor usually is the proportion between new, bold-printing
(ſt2) and older-appearing ligatures (ſt1). In Sejanus, two
old letters can be seen at C1:11,12 among a dozen new samples. Damage
usually consists of a flattening or distortion of the curve of the shoulder of
the 'ſ' and can be seen in the "new" letters at C1:3,30. In contrast, five
new letters (LLL, A4v:18,30, B1:4, 10,34) are found among
nine damaged in White-M, and the two are about equal in Simmes-S
(Mal Q3, C2:7,8). A crisper, deeper impression in the
matrix(ces) probably accounts for the difference in weight and distinctness
of the two 'ſt', as must be the case with the 'ſſ' ligature. Heavy
inking on the inside of the left 'ſ' seems responsible for a bold apparent
variant ſſ2 with the left 'f' curving inward at the baseline (White-M,
Titus, B4:12). The left shoulder often prints as an oblique
straight-line. The consistent inking effect suggests a variant
punch although there is no measurable difference. Some erect, normal
appearing ſſ1 can be found in most S-fonts (Eld-S, Sej,
D1:28; Field-S, Arte of Poesie STC20519 [1589],
D4:25,26,35)
along with the apparent variant (Sej, C3v:31;
Arte,
D4:27). A single punch doubtlessly produced all these 'ſſ' ligatures.
The 'ſh' appears in S-fonts in a normal version ſh1 along with two
common miscastings. In ſh2, the 'ſ' and ascender of the 'h' lean right
in varying degrees, while the right stem of the 'h' is erect; the foot of the
'ſ' is above the baseline (0.15mm) while the feet of the 'h' are generally
level at the baseline; the body of the type frequently seems to lean right. In
ſh3, the
'ſ' and right stem of the 'h' are erect, the ascender of the 'h' slants to
the right, and all three feet are even on the baseline.
[22] The frequent juxtaposition of the
leaning
ligatures, particularly the 'ſh', with round letters (o e) in combination
with inking of the base-serifs often creates an optical illusion that the left
and the right foot ride respectively above and below the base line, although
at high magnification this effect can be discounted. It is worth noting that
Braddock-Y1 was replenished with a miscasting similar to ſh2, quite
possibly the same (
MND Q1, D1v:26), which perhaps was
part
of the purchase that introduced the S-face 'ſt' noted below.
The letters of variant ff1 are correctly aligned (spaced 1.15mm), and
the long right shoulder terminates horizontally in a small pear and extends
1.15-1.2mm beyond the right 'f'; the right shoulder of miscut variant ff2
curves into a sharp tip and extends 1.05mm beyond the ascender; the
broadly curved left shoulder separates the misaligned letters 1.2-1.25mm (at
0.4mm above the x-line) which then converge to a spacing of 1.1-1.15mm
at the baseline; the left 'f' is slightly higher in most. Misjustified matrices
contribute low-riding miscastings of both variants (ff1: Danter-M,
Coblers Prophesies STC 25781 [1594], C1:7, C4v:32;
LLL, B2v:11, C2:27, C3:32. ff2: LLL,
B2v:11,
C2:27, C3:32) as well as correctly aligned ligatures (ff1: Sej,
C3:20, C3v:4; Creede-1, Selimus STC 12310a [1594], D1:32
"off"). ff2: Sej, C1v:22; Simmes-S, R3, B3:35,
D2v:31; Creede-2, Selimus, D2:32 'effeminate"). Both
variants
that appear in the 'fl'
sort are miscut with the letters converging toward the baseline. The two are
easily distinguished by height (fl1: 2.75-2.85mm, see Sej,
B4:24, C4:17. fl2: 2.9-3.05mm, see R3, E3v:35, E4:6;
Read-S,
Cynthia's Revels, STC14733 [1601], B3v:6,14,30,35); the
misalignment is less pronounced in fl1 (above x-line: 1.2mm, baseline:
1.15mm) than in fl2 (1.25mm, 1.1-1.15mm). A third variant with correctly
aligned letters appears in Creede-1 and White-M although it may not belong
to the S-face set of punches (fl3: 2.7-2.8mm high, 1.15-1.2mm wide; see
Selimus, C4v:23 "flight", C4v:24 "flies"; LLL,
G3:7). The right-leaning 'i' of miscast variant fi2 (2.85-2.9mm high)
produces a width of 1.2mm at the upslanting cross and 1.05 mm at the
baseline; the 'i' often appears to ride high and the ligature frequently leans
right (Danter-M, Coblers, C3:5; White-M,
LLL,
A4:2, Fools, D1v:20).
An 'ſt' with right-leaning 't' (ſt1) is common in Y-fonts,
although the lean is not so pronounced as in the S-face ligature since the
portion of the 't' below the cross is closer to the vertical. Short-Y contains
a large proportion of the ligature in which the deviation is so slight that the
't' appears erect (R3, H2:26,29,33), although the shoulder
over-extends the 't' so that the top-half of the 't' leans right (ſt1b).
Eld-Y1 includes a small proportion of this version (Mal Q2,
C4:20,21, C4v:7). A second version in which both letters lean right and the
't' rides high (ſt2) is also common to Y-fonts, appearing in low
proportion in Short-Y (R3, H2:13,37) and Eld-Y1, but in the
majority in Braddock-Y1 (MND Q1, D3:1,15,27,31); the
latter
was replenished with a significant number of S-face 'ſt' which is quite
obvious because of size (MND Q1, D3v:6,21, F3v:28,29).
The
'ſt' sort in Braddock-Y2 is split evenly between the leaning 't'
(ſt2) (Antichrist STC7120, [1]B3v:1,11,18) and partially
erect
't' (ſt1b) ([1]B3v:27,32), both of which equal the 'G' in height. Neither
the Garamond nor Guyot 'ſt' with the tall 't' and right-angle shoulder
junction seem to appear in Y-fonts. Common miscastings occur in two other
ligatures. A miscast ſi2 with right-leaning 'ſ' (or left-leaning 'i') is the
majority variant in Eld-Y1 (
Mal Q1-2, E2:5 "pleasingly" vs
normal ſi1 E2:4 "sinne"), in the minority in Purfoot-Y, almost exclusive
in Field-Y (
Observations in the Arte of English Poesie
STC4543
[1602], A7:8 "sillables" vs ſi1 A7:7 "consisting") but less frequent in
Braddock-Y1 (
MND, D1v:17) and -Y2, and rare in Short-Y.
A
miscast fi2 with a high-riding 'i' and the cross accordingly slanted upward
likewise is almost exclusive in Field-Y (
Observations,
B1:6,8),
of about equal proportions in Eld-Y1 (
Mal Q1-2, E3:5) with
the
normal version (
Mal Q1-2, E2:3,25), and uncommon in
Braddock-Y1 and Short-Y.
Although samples of most lower-case letters are available in large
quantities in a text, their value as discriminants is somewhat undercut by
their size and penchant for sustaining damage and distortion through
extended usage. Generally, wrong-face upper-case letters are obvious to the
naked eye because of stylistic differences, but identifying miscast and
wrong-size lowercase pica letters is difficult if not impossible except at high
magnification, since the measurable differences often amount to less than
0.1mm. Inking effects easily obscure this magnitude of variation, especially
when new types ink more boldly. Read-S provides examples of
replenishment with obvious Y-face letters in several sorts. Graceful Y-face
'a' variants distinguished by the shoulder, which extends to the left of the
bowl, appear in varying proportions, accounting on some pages for about
30% of the total (Revels, B3v), and in lower proportions on
others such as I2, where six (I2:4,20,23,24,26,31)
are found among 72 older S-face 'a', reflecting the random recurrence of
low-level replenished letters in page-length textual units. The Y-face 'k'
variants and squat S-face k2 (junction height: 0.75mm) appear in roughly
equal proportions, as on B3v where the ratio is 5:6, and both are in good
condition, suggesting proximate replenishment without concern for stylistic
integrity. Some pages show a few older S-face k1 (junction height:
0.65mm) (E1v:9,14) with worn serifs. The ratio of Y- and S-face 'p' is
about 1:2 (C2v, 6:11). The fact that wrong-face letters occur in just a few
lower-case sorts is a useful discriminant between Read-S and mixed fonts
such as Danter-M and White-M, which exhibit variants in most sorts. The
frequent skewing of type also is a pivotal factor in lessening the value of
lower-case letters as discriminants and increases the need to cross-check
against other fonts in order to establish whether a given letter is actually
abnormal. A survey of many pages of
Revels such as B3v, for example, reveals that a vertical
shifting
of type during the locking-up of the forme skewed many lines and as a
result moved many types above and below the distorted baseline. Judgments
about specific types are thus rendered difficult. In many instances,
examination of such letters at high magnification in originals reveals that
they actually are positioned correctly on the baseline, and the illusion of
horizontal displacement is caused by inking effects. Read-S was replenished
with miscast and oversized letters in several sorts. The 't' sort is about
equally distributed between normal, worn
letters (t1) that lean slightly to the right (height: 1.8-1.95mm depending on
wear) and a new oversized, usually erect t3 (height: 2.3-2.45mm) which
positions correctly and is distinguished by an accentuated hooked terminal
at the baseline (see
Revels, B4v:16 "that" and B4v:22 "but
the"
for juxtaposed samples). The new type inks more boldly, emphasizing the
size difference and spreading the ink-smear below the base-line, although
the foot of the letter is actually positioned correctly. The same t3 appears
in White-M, where it actually does ride low (0.2-0.25mm) and leans right
(
LLL, A2:7 "then", A2: 18,19). In contrast, the 't' sort of
Creede-3 includes a normal, erect t1 (
R&J Q2, A4:4
"it")
and a normal-size replenished 't' with a severe right-lean (t2) that, even
with heavy inking, is correctly positioned on the base-line (A4:4, "part").
This letter seems slightly taller than the normal because the top has not yet
been worn down.
In general, discriminants consisting of miscast and wrong-size
lower-case letters are limited to a few sorts in pica fonts, partly because of
the limited sources of new types, and certainly because of the difficulty of
detecting abnormal letters with any certainty. High-frequency letters such
as 'c e l r s' seem useless as discriminants because of the absence of
inherent distinguishing features. The cross of the S-face 'e', for example,
appears to rotate through a range of about 8 degrees above and below the
horizontal, suggesting a potential discriminant. However, the simultaneous
appearances of 'e' with varying degrees of rotation in fonts such as
Creede-1 and Creede-2 (Selimus STC 12310a) indicates a
misstrike, misjustification, matrix-wobble during casting, or common
damage.[23] Variations in inking,
paper-stretch, and wear frequently obscure the stylistic differences in actual
variants and abnormal letters and can be resolved only at high
magnification in originals. For example, S-fonts commonly have three
variants in the 'n' and 'u' sorts which differ in newness, height, width and
weight (boldness). The height of vertical letter elements, particularly serifed
ascenders and stems, varies according to the amount of wear and the kind
of damage a letter has experienced so that dimensions must be expressed as
a range of values (as in the following examples). Variant u1 (1.05mm wide,
1.7-1.8mm high) and the tall u2 (1.1mm wide, 1.9-2.0mm high) frequently
appear identical because of these factors. The u2 at Revels
B3v:22 inked lightly just to the edge of the top-serifs with no excess ink to
blot upward as the wetted paper stretched around the top-serif during
impression; in contrast, the short u1 at B3v:23 ("would") inked heavily and
exhibits the stretch effect. Both types exhibit the common distortion caused
by beating the type during lock-up: the left serif is depressed into the type
because of the absence of
support and the stem is bent inward slightly (see u2, Fools,
F1:16, vs new u2, E2v:17) while the right serif is pushed upward rather
than depressed because of the support provided to the malletblow by the left
stem. As a result, the top of the letter slants upward, with left-stem heights
of 1.7mm (u1) and 1.8mm (u2) and right-stem heights of 1.8mm (u1) and
1.95mm (u2). The printed images of the two 'u' variants (B3v:22,23) are
nearly identical in height (1.85/1.9mm vs 1.8/1.95mm) and
indistinguishable with the naked eye. Variant u3, which is exclusive in
Eld-S
(
Sej, B3:2,3), is slightly narrower (0.95-1.0mm) and of
normal
height (1.7mm), but when encountered in the context of other variants and
the uneven inking and printing characteristics of a mixed font such as
White-M (
LLL, A3:4 "but", 24 "but"), it is easily confused
with a lightly inked worn u1 or the tall u4 (0.95mm wide, 1.9mm high)
(
LLL, A3:2 "studie"). Similarly, inking and paper-stretch
effects frequently confuse medium variant n1 (1.1mm wide, 1.65-1.75mm
high) and bold, wide n2 (1.15mm wide, 1.7-1.8mm high), but since both
commonly appear together, their value as discriminants is lessened.
However, both can be confused with two miscastings that are valuable.
Bold variant n3 is wider at the baseline (1.15mm vs 1.05mm) because the
left stem leans (
Revels, B3v:2 "and";
LLL,
A3:15
"blinded"), while the left stem of n4 bows outward to 1.15mm at the center
(
Sej, B3:4 "mine", 11 "unto") to appear wider although the
separation of stems
is 1.1mm at the baseline.
The 'w' especially is prone to creating an illusion of extra height and
low positioning, since the paper stretches along the pointed apexes and
down into the type-shoulder during impression. About 30% of Read's 'w'
sort is oversized (height: 1.9mm) and usually rides low (w2)
(Revels, C2v:14,15,17), although a far greater portion merely
seems oversized. The same is true of White-M, Creede-3 and other fonts
in which the w2 variant occurs. A condensed "tight" 'w' (width: 1.55mm)
(Revels, B1v:16, B3v:26, C1:18,32, I3:26) that prints with
distinct apexes and lacks a center serif is difficult to decipher and illustrates
one kind of problem associated with pica lower-case letters. Since no
equivalent variant appears in contemporary S-fonts, the likely conclusion is
that it should be dismissed as undefinable. However, it is a genuine variant
that appears in an S-font used by Henry Bynneman some thirty years earlier
(The Enimie of Idlenesse STC11476 [1568], prefatory
letter, [unsigned verso]: 8,10,12,13,22). By 1579, the condensed 'w' had
been replaced by the normal S-face letter. However, it remains in John
Allde's S-font as late as 1580 (A Warning for the Wise
STC5259, C4:4 etc.). The newer majority w2 in White-M always rides low
(LLL, A2:13) and appears along with an alternate-face 'w'
(A2:23) as well as low-frequency remnants of the Guyot short second-stem
'w' (A2:14, A3:10). Creede-3 uses a distinctive w3 (introduced via
Creede-2) in which the outer stems print finely and seem to bow outward,
with serifs inside the stems (R&J Q2, A4v:2,13); it
appears
oversized in some instances (A4v:16 "swoong"). This w3 occurs in
White-M and Stafford-EF as well as in S-fonts and is integral to the
EF-face. In contrast, Eld-S and Windet-S lack the 'w' variants found in the
above fonts. Overall, the comparison of these letters in several S-fonts is
necessary to distinguish miscast letters from normal letters whose
appearance is
modified by inking and impression.
It seems that useful miscastings are even more limited in Y-fonts.
Two variants of 't' were introduced into Eld-Y1, including a leaning
low-rider t2 (Essayes STC18041, Yy1v:3 "it" "their";
Antichrist STC7120, [2]A2v:2,3,4) and an erect t1 which
positions correctly (Yy1v:9 "wittily"). By mid-1604, the proportion of the
leaning version diminished (Mal Q1, B4v:14 "witty" and
B4v:16 "vnutterable", where it is juxtaposed to quite normal letters) with
further replenishment by the normal t1. Braddock-Y1 (1598) and -Y2
(1603) show a roughly equal distribution between erect t1 and a leaning t2,
both of which position correctly (
MND Q1, D1:7,8,9;
Antichrist STC7120, [1]B2:5); Purfoot-Y1 is similar. Short-Y
includes a low proportion of t1 (
R3, H1:4,13, 17) and a very
few low-riding t2 like Eld's that generally print more boldly
(
R3, H1:15,32, H1v:12,23,37). The 'w' sort includes four
variants in Y-fonts. w2 is taller than normal (Short-Y,
R3,
H2:14,15,16). The left stem of w3 is taller than the right so that the top of
the letter appears to slant downward to the right (Eld-Y1,
Mal
Q2, C1:1,12,22). This variant is probably attributable to a misstrike with
the punch leaning to the left and producing an impression with uneven
lateral depth. It is difficult to explain the w4 variant in which the right 'v'
is quite short (1.4mm vs a normal 1.7mm) (Eld-Y1,
Fools,
B4v:15,32). A severely
damaged punch seems the only possibility.
Finally, rather high concentrations of wrong-face and wrong-size
punctuation (especially in Y-fonts) present a confusing situation. The
distinction between replenishment and fouling is academic here since all
printers had complementary fonts as a source of foul-case punctuation
marks in black letter, italic, and larger faces. However, the appearance of
several sizes of comma in Braddock-Y1 and Short-Y suggests deliberate
replenishment, at least in regard to the size normally found in 96mm fonts;
the 108mm variants are so grossly oversized as to suggest fouling. Commas
are especially difficult to work with due to paper stretch and the effects
produced by medial vs terminal justification. As a result, the 96mm and
108mm commas frequently cannot be reliably distinguished from each
other, although they are usually distinguishable from heavily-inked normal
commas.[24]
