University of Virginia Library

Chapter XLVIII

EIGHT CANONS[1]

1. Accordance with Human Feelings[2] :
Accumulation of Wisdom[3]

Generally speaking, the order of All-under-Heaven must
accord with human feelings. Human feelings have likes and
dislikes, wherefore reward and punishment can be applied.
If reward and punishment are applicable, prohibitions and
orders will prevail and the course of government will be
accomplished. As the ruler has the handles in his grip and
thereby upholds his august position, what is ordered works
and what is prohibited stops. The handles are regulators of
life and death; the position is the means of overcoming the
masses.

If dismissal and appointment have no constant rule, the
sovereign's prerogative will be profaned; if matters of reward
and punishment are administered in common by the sovereign
and the inferiors, the sovereign's authority will be shaken.
For this reason, the intelligent sovereign does not listen with
the attitude of love nor does he scheme with the sense of
delight. For, if he does not compare the words he heeds, his
prerogative will be shaken by rapacious ministers; if he does
not make use of the ministers' wisdom and strength, he will

be harassed by the ministers. Therefore, the sovereign, when
enforcing regulations, is as magnificent as heaven, and, when
using men, is as mysterious as the spirit. For heaven cannot
be confuted and the spirit cannot be harassed by human
beings. When the position functions and the training is
strict, though the ruler acts contrary to the world, nobody
dares to disobey. Once blame and praise prevail under a
unified system, nobody dares to dispute. Therefore, to
reward the wise and punish the violent is the best way to exalt
good people; to reward the outrageous and punish the wise
is the extremity to exalt bad people, which is said to be
rewarding participants in wickedness and punishing
opponents to it.

Now, rewards should not be otherwise than liberal, so that
the people will consider them profitable; honours should
not be otherwise than attractive, so that the people will
consider them glorious; censures should not be otherwise
than strict, so that the people will consider them severe;
and blame should not be otherwise than odious, so that
the people will consider it disgraceful. Thereafter, the
ruler will universally enforce his laws. When prohibitions
and censures of private families mean no harm to the people,
and when men of merit deserving reward and culprits
deserving punishment are always known, the system of
intelligent service is accomplished.

2. The Tao of the Sovereign[4] : Organizing the Wise[5]

As one man in physical strength can not rival a multitude
of people and in wisdom can not comprehend everything,

using one man's strength and wisdom can not be compared
with using the strength and wisdom of the whole state.
Therefore, who with his own strength and wisdom defies
people, will be overcome in all things. If he by chance hits
the object, he will have already over-worked himself; if he
misses the object, he will be held responsible[6] for the
mistake.

The inferior ruler exerts his own ability; the average ruler
exerts people's physical strength; and the superior ruler
exerts people's wisdom. For this reason, in case of emergency
he gathers the wise men, listens to each one, and calls a
conference. If he does not listen to each one, consequent
results will be contrary to antecedent words. If consequent
results are contrary to antecedent words, there will be no
distinction[7] between the stupid and the wise. If the ruler
does not call a conference, there will be hesitation and no
decision. Without decision, everything will come to a standstill.
If the ruler adopts one of the counsels himself, he will
have no fear of falling into the trap of rapacious people.
Therefore, he should let everybody utter his opinions. After
opinions are settled, he should hold them responsible[8] for
equivalent results. For this purpose, on the day that opinions
are uttered, he should make written memoranda. Thus, the
organizer of wise men verifies their words after starting the
tasks; the organizer of able men estimates[9] their merits after
seeing their works. Success and failure leave evidence,
which reward and punishment follow respectively. If tasks

are successfully accomplished, the ruler harvests their fruits;
if they fail, the ministers face criminal charges.

Who rules over men, never busies himself with the
identification of tallies, not to mention laborious work.
Nor does he busy himself in case of[10] emergency at hand,
still less with distant affairs. Therefore, self-exhaustion is
not the right policy in personnel administration. The ruler
does not take advice from the same source. If ministers unify
their words, the ruler will reprimand them. If he makes
people exert their respective abilities, he will become godlike.
If he is godlike, the inferiors will exert their wisdom. If every
inferior exerts his wisdom[11] the ministers will not take
advantage of the ruler and the Tao of the sovereign will be
accomplished.

3. Preventing the Rise of Commotions[12]

Who knows ruler and minister differ in interest, will
become supreme. Who regards the difference[13] as identity,
will be intimidated. Who administers the state affairs in
common with his ministers, will be killed. Therefore, the
intelligent sovereign will scrutinize the distinctions between
public and private interests and the relative positions of
benefit and harm, so that wicked men will find no chance
to act.

There are six kinds of creators of commotions, namely,
dowagers, concubines, bastards, brothers, chief vassals, and
celebrities for wisdom. If magistrates are appointed and

ministers bear responsibilities in accordance with law, the
sovereign's mother will not dare any kind of rampancy. If
propriety and bestowal have different grades, concubines
can not speculate whether their sons might replace the heir
apparent. If the supreme position tolerates no rivalry,
bastards cannot dispute with legitimate sons. If authority
and position[14] are not shaken, royal brothers cannot trespass
on the ruler's power. If subordinate officials are not from the
same clan, chief vassals can not delude the ruler. If prohibitions
and rewards are always enforced, celebrities for
wisdom cannot create any commotion. . . .[15]

Ministers have two resorts, called outer and inner. The
outer is said to be "the feared"; the inner, "the loved".
What is requested by the feared is granted; what is suggested
by the loved, is followed. Thus, the feared and the loved
are what the rapacious ministers appeal to. If officials
recommended by foreign states are cross-examined[16] and
censured for their continuous development of personal friendships
and acceptance of bribes from abroad, they will
not count on the outer resort. If ranks and bounties follow
meritorious services, and if those who make request on
behalf of their friends and relatives are equally implicated in
the practice of favouritism, nobody will count on the inner
resort. If both the outer and the inner resorts are not relied
on, culprits outside and inside[17] the court will be suppressed.

Officials who advance according to the regular order till
they reach posts of great responsibilities, are wise. Those

whose posts are high and responsibilities are great, should be
held under surveillance by three means of control, namely,
"taking hostages"[18] , "holding securities"[19] , and "finding
sureties"[20] . Relatives, wives and sons can be taken as
hostages; ranks and bounties can be held as securities; and
the "three units and basic fives" that are implicated[21] in
any of the members' illegal acts, can be found as sureties.
Worthies refrain from evils for fear of "hostage-taking";
greedy people are transformed by the measure of "security-holding";
and culprits are harassed by the measure of
"surety-using". If the superior does not exercise these
means of control, the inferiors will dare to infringe upon his
authority[22] . If small culprits are not eliminated, he will have
to censure great culprits. When censuring[23] culprits, if name
and fact correspond to each other, he should immediately
enforce the censure. If their life is detrimental to the state
affairs and their death penalty is harmful to the ruler's name,
then he should poison them through drinking or eating,
otherwise send them into the hands of their enemies. This
is said to "eliminate invisible culprits"[24] . Harbouring[25]
culprits is due[26] to the practice of misrepresentation. The
practice of misrepresentation is due to the contempt for the
law. If visible merits are always rewarded and disclosed
crimes are punished, the practice of misrepresentation will
stop. Him who gives no opinion of right or wrong, presents
unreasonable persuasions and remonstrations, and shows
contempt for the law, the ruler should not take into service.

Uncles, cousins, or worthy and excellent ministers, living
in exile, are said to be "roaming calamities"[27] . Their menace
comes from their provision of neighbouring enemies with
numerous opportunities. Eunuchs and courtiers are said to
be "profligate rebels".[28] Their menace comes from their ill
will caused by irritation and suspicion. To conceal anger,
shelter criminals, and harbour them, is said to "increase
commotions"[29] . The menace lies in the rise of men expecting
godsends and making arbitrary promotions. To delegate
equal authority to two chief vassals and maintain the balance
of power between them without partiality, is said to "nourish
calamities"[30] . The menace lies in the precipitation of family
quarrels[31] , intimidations, and regicides. To be careless and
not to keep oneself godlike, is called to "lose prestige"[32] .
Its menace lies in the rise of such treason as regicide by
poisoning. These five are menaces, which, if the lord of men
ignores them, will eventually precipitate such disasters as
intimidation and regicide. If matters of dismissal and appointment
originate from inside, then there will be order; if from

outside[33] , then chaos. Therefore, the intelligent sovereign
would estimate meritorious services inside the court and
harvest profits from abroad. Consequently, his state is always
orderly; his enemies, always chaotic. The reason for chaos
is that unduly hated ministers would create such outer
commotions by means of delusion, and unduly loved
vassals would create such inner commotions by means of
poisoning.

4. Enforcing the System of Three Units and Basic Fives[34]

The system of "three units and basic fives" means to
choose the plan held by the majority when different opinions
are subsumed under three categories, and to organize basic
groups of five families and implicate all the members of each
group in any member's misconduct. Thus, the comparison
of different opinions always differentiates the majority and
the minority from each other; the organization of groups of
five families always holds members of the same group jointly
responsible[35] . If not differentiated, they would profane the
superior's authority; if not held responsible, they would
co-operate in evil doings.[36] Therefore, the ruler should differentiate
them when their number is still small and can be easily
known. When angry, he should censure only the culprits
but not their relatives. His position of observing deeds and
heeding speeches is demonstrated by his punishing[37] all clique

members, rewarding non-partisans[38] , censuring women[39]
interviewers, and convicting their adherents. Regarding the
diverse opinions uttered simultaneously, he should estimate
them in the light of their backgrounds, scrutinize them with
the principles of heaven, verify them by the course of affairs,
and compare them with the sentiments of mankind. If these
four demonstrations coincide with one another, then the ruler
may proceed to observe deeds.

Compare different words and thereby know the true one.
Change[40] the perspectives and thereby detect[41] the choice
abode. Stick to your own view and thereby hold your
extraordinary[42] standpoint. Unify the system of personnel
administration and thereby warn the courtiers.[43] Dignify your
words and thereby scare distant officials. Cite the past facts
and thereby check the antecedent words. Keep detectives
near by the officials and thereby know their inner conditions.
Send detectives[44] afar and thereby know outer affairs.
Hold to your clear knowledge and thereby inquire into
obscure objects. Give ministers false encouragements and
thereby extirpate their attempts to infringe on the ruler's
rights. Invert your words and thereby try out the suspects.
Use contradictory arguments[45] and thereby find out the
invisible culprits. Establish the system of espionage[46] and

thereby rectify the fraudulent[47] people. Make appointments
and dismissals and thereby observe the reactions of wicked
officials. Speak explicitly and thereby persuade people to
avoid faults. Humbly follow others' speeches and thereby
discriminate between earnest men and flatterers. Get information
from everybody and know things you have not yet
seen. Create quarrels among adherents and partisans
and thereby disperse them. Explore the depths of one culprit
and thereby warn the mind of the many. Divulge false ideas
and thereby make the inferiors think matters over.

In the case of similarities and resemblances, identify their
common points. When stating anybody's faults, grasp the
causes, know the due penalties,[48] and thereby justify[49] the
exercise of your authority. Send out spies in secret to inspect
the enemy states from time to time and thereby find their signs
of decay. Gradually change envoys sent abroad and thereby
break up their secret communications and private friendships
with foreign states. Put every subordinate under surveillance
by his immediate principal. Thus, ministers discipline their
vassals; vassals discipline their dependents; soldiers and
officials discipline their troops; envoys discipline their
deputies; prefects discipline their subordinates; courtiers
discipline their attendants; and queens and concubines
discipline their court maids. Such is said to be "the systematic
thorough way"[50] .

If words are divulged and affairs leak out, then no statecraft
will function at all.

5. Devotion to Secrecy[51]

The lord of men has the duty of devoting his attention to
secrecy. For this reason, when his delight is revealed, his
conduct will be slighted;[52] when his anger is revealed, his
prestige will fall to the ground. The words of the intelligent
sovereign, therefore, are blockaded in such wise that they
are not communicable outwards and are kept in such secrecy
that they are unknowable. Therefore, to find ten culprits
with the wisdom of one person is an inferior way, to find one
culprit through the mutual watch of ten persons is a superior
way.[53] As the intelligent sovereign takes both the superior
and the inferior ways, no culprit is ever missed. Members of
the same group of five families, of the same village,[54] and of
the same county,[55] all live like close neighbours. Who
denounces anybody else's fault, is rewarded; who misses[56]
anybody else's fault, is censured. The same is true of the
superior towards the inferior and of the inferior towards the
superior. Accordingly, superior and inferior, high and low,
warn each other to obey the law, and teach each other to
secure profits.[57] By nature everybody wants to live in fact and
in reputation. So does the ruler want both the name of being
worthy and intelligent and the fact of rewarding and punishing

people. When fame and fact are equally complete, he will
certainly be known as lucky and good.

6. Comparing Different Speeches[58]

If speeches heard from inferiors are not compared, the
superior will find no reason to call the inferiors to account.
If speeches are not held responsible for their utility, heretical
theories will bewilder the superior. A word is such that people
believe in it because its upholders are numerous. An unreal
thing, if its existence is asserted by ten men, is still subject to
doubt; if its existence is asserted by one hundred men, its
reality becomes probable; and if its existence is asserted by
one thousand men, it becomes undoubtable. Again, if spoken
about by stammerers, it is susceptible to doubt; if spoken
about by eloquent persons, it becomes believable. Wicked
men, when violating their superior, rely on the support of the
many for their background, display their eloquence by
quoting forced analogies so as to embellish their selfish acts.
If the lord of men shows no anger at them but expects to
compare and identify their deeds with their words, by force
of circumstances his inferiors will be benefited.

The sovereign upholding the true path, when heeding
words, holds them accountable for their utility, and charges
them with their functions. From the requirement of successful
functions there issue matters of reward and punishment.
Therefore, whoever displays useless eloquence, is never kept
in the court; whoever is appointed to office, if known to be
unable to perform his duties, is removed from his post;[59] and

whoever talks big and exaggerates everything, is driven to his
wits' end by the disappointing outcome. In consequence,
there will be disclosed wickednesses, wherefore the superior
will be in a position to reprimand the culprits. Any word
that does not truly materialize with no extraneous hindrance,
is a fraud. Of fraud the speaker should then be convicted.
In other words, every word has its retribution; every theory
has its responsibility for utility. Consequently, the words of
rapacious ministers' adherents and partisans will not go into
the superior's ear.

According to the right way of heeding suggestions in
general, the ruler requires the minister to speak loyally to
him about any culprit, and to cite wide illustrations of every
suggestion presented to him for adoption.[60] If the sovereign
is not wise, culprits will gain the advantage. Yet according
to the intelligent sovereign's way, the ruler, when pleased by
any counsellor, would examine the accepted counsel in detail;
when angered by any counsellor, he would reconsider the
whole contentions for the argument, and profane his judgment
till his feelings have become normal in order that he may
thereby find sufficient reason to award the counsellor honour
or disgrace and determine whether his motive is public justice
or private greediness.

Ministers usually present as many counsels as possible to
display their wisdom and let the ruler choose one out of them,
so that they can avoid responsibilities. Therefore, when
numerous counsels appear simultaneously, only the fallen ruler
would heed them. As for the intelligent sovereign, he would
admit no alternative word in addition to the original, but

enact the system of future testimony by making[61] the consequent
result testify the antecedent project so as to ascertain
the falsity or sincerity[62] of the counsellor. The way of the
intelligent sovereign never tolerates two different counsels by
one minister, but restricts one person to one counsel at one
time, allows nobody to act at random, and always synthesizes
the results of comparison. Therefore, the culprits find no
way to advance.

7. Confiding in the Law[63]

Officials are over-powerful because there are no effective
laws. Laws stop functioning because the superior is stupid.
If the superior is stupid and upholds no rule, the officials will
act at random. As the officials act at random, their salaries
will be surpassed by no precedent. If their salaries are
surpassed by no predecessor, taxes will be increased. As
taxes are increased, they will become wealthy. The wealth
and powerfulness of the officials eventually breed chaos.[64]

Under the intelligent sovereign's Tao, only trustworthy
men are taken into service, only dutiful officials are praised,
and only men of merit are rewarded. When anybody
recommends anybody else to the sovereign, if his word
materializes truly and thereby delights the ruler, then both
he and the official should be equally benefited; if his word
does not truly materialize and thereby angers the ruler, then
both he and that official should be equally punished. If so,
ministers will not dare grant their uncles and cousins personal
favours, but will recommend their enemies who have the

required abilities. Their influences are sufficient to enforce
the law, their allowances are sufficient to perform their duties,
and their self-seeking activities find no room to grow in.
In consequence, the people will work hard and lessen the
officials' burden.

Whoever is entrusted with public affairs, should not be
over-powerful. Only to his rank should the ruler ascribe his
honour. Whoever holds office should not be self-seeking.
Only to his bounty should the ruler limit his income. In
consequence, the people will honour ranks and esteem
bounties. Thus, rank and bounty will become means of
reward. When the people esteem these means of reward, the
state will be in good order.

If norms are intricate, it is because terms are mistaken. If
prizes and praises are not adequate, the people will hang in
suspense. Now that the people hold both fame and prizes in
equal esteem, if the rewarded are slandered, reward will not
be fit to encourage people; if the punished are admired, then
punishment will not be fit to suppress culprits. It is the
intelligent sovereign's way that rewards always result from
contributions to public benefit and that fame always originates
in services to the superior. If reward and fame follow the
same track and slander and censure proceed in parallel, the
people will find nothing more glorious than to be rewarded[65]

and the receivers of heavy penalties will always incur bad
names. In consequence, the people will fear punishment, that
is, means of prohibition. If the people fear means of prohibition,
the state will be in good order.

8. Upholding the Sovereign's Dignity[66]

If the sovereign manifests chivalrous conduct, his dignity
will be shaken. If he follows theories of compassion and
benevolence, legal institutions will crumble. On account of
such institutions the people revere the superior; by virtue
of his position the superior holds down the inferior. Therefore,
if inferiors act at random, unscrupulously violate the
law, and honour the custom of slighting the ruler, then the
sovereign's dignity will be shaken. The people on account
of the law hesitate to violate the superior; the superior on
account of the law suppresses the sentiments of compassion
and benevolence. Thus, the inferiors appreciate favours and
charities and strive for a government with bribes and pay.[67]
For this reason, laws and orders are failing in their aim.
Private actions are honoured, whereby the sovereign's dignity
is shaken. Bribes and pay are used, whereby the efficacy of
laws and orders[68] is doubted. If such vices are tolerated, the
government will be disturbed; if not, the sovereign will be
slandered. In the long run, the ruler's status will be despised
and the regulations for the officials will be confused. Such
is called "a state without constant authority"[69] .

Under the Tao of the intelligent sovereign, no minister is
allowed to practise chivalry and give honours nor is he
allowed to accomplish any merit for his family's sake.
Achievement and reputation are always based on the initiative
of the regulations of the officials. What is against law,
though it may involve difficulties, cannot be celebrated.
In consequence, the people will find no reason to make their
reputation. Now, to establish laws and regulations is to
unify the people; to make reward and punishment faithful
is to exert their abilities; and to make slander and honours
clear is to encourage good and discourage evil. Fame and
titles, rewards and punishments, laws and orders, are three
pairs[70] of statecraft. . . .[71] Therefore, any action by the chief
vassals will aim to honour the ruler; any service by the
hundred surnames will aim to benefit the superior. Such is
called "a state on the true path"[72] .