University of Virginia Library

BOOK NINETEEN

Chapter XLIX

FIVE VERMIN[1]
A PATHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF POLITICS

In the age of remote antiquity, human beings were few
while birds and beasts were many. Mankind being unable to
overcome birds, beasts, insects, and serpents, there appeared
a sage who made nests by putting pieces of wood together to
shelter people from harm. Thereat the people were so
delighted that they made him ruler of All-under-Heaven and
called him the Nest-Dweller. In those days the people lived
on the fruits of trees and seeds of grass as well as mussels and
clams, which smelt rank and fetid and hurt the digestive
organs. As many of them were affected with diseases, there
appeared a sage who twisted a drill to make fire which
changed the fetid and musty smell. Thereat the people were
so delighted that they made him ruler of All-under-Heaven.

In the age of middle antiquity, there was a great deluge in
All-under-Heaven, wherefore Kung and Yü opened channels
for the water. In the age of recent antiquity, Chieh and Chow
were violent and turbulent, wherefore T`ang and Wu overthrew
them.

Now, if somebody fastened the trees or turned a drill in
the age of the Hsia-hou Clan, he would certainly be ridiculed
by Kung and Yü. Again, if somebody opened channels for
water in the age of the Yin and Chou Dynasties, he would

certainly be ridiculed by T'ang and Wu. That being so, if
somebody in the present age praises the ways of Yao, Shun,
Kung[2] , Yü[3] , T`ang, and Wu, he would, no doubt, be
ridiculed by contemporary sages.

That is the reason why the sage neither seeks to follow the
ways of the ancients nor establishes any fixed standard for
all times but examines the things of his age and then prepares
to deal with them.

There was in Sung a man, who tilled a field in which there
stood the trunk of a tree. Once a hare, while running fast,
rushed against the trunk, broke its neck, and died. Thereupon
the man cast his plough aside and watched that tree,
hoping that he would get another hare. Yet he never caught
another hare and was himself ridiculed by the people of Sung.
Now supposing somebody wanted to govern the people of
the present age with the policies of the early kings, he would
be doing exactly the same thing as that man who watched
the tree.

In olden times, men did not need to till, for the seeds of
grass and the fruits of trees were sufficient to feed them;
nor did women have to weave, for the skins of birds and
beasts were sufficient to clothe them. Thus, without working
hard, they had an abundance of supply. As the people were
few, their possessions were more than sufficient. Therefore
the people never quarrelled. As a result, neither large rewards
were bestowed nor were heavy punishments employed, but
the people governed themselves. Nowadays, however, people
do not regard five children as many. Each child may in his
or her turn beget five offspring, so that before the death of

the grandfather there may be twenty-five grand-children.
As a result, people have become numerous and supplies
scanty; toil has become hard and provisions meager. Therefore
people quarrel so much that, though rewards are doubled
and punishments repeated, disorder is inevitable.

When Yao was ruling All-under-Heaven, his thatched roof
was untrimmed and his beam unplaned. He ate unpolished
grain and made soup of coarse greens and wore deerskin
garments in winter and rough fibre-cloth in summer. Even
the clothes and provisions of a gate-keeper were not more
scanty than his. When Yü was ruling All-under-Heaven, he
led the people with plough and spade in hands, till his thighs
had no down and his shins grew no hair. Even the toil of a
prisoner of war was not more distressful than his. Speaking
from this viewpoint, indeed, he who abdicated the throne of
the Son of Heaven in favour of others in olden times, was
simply foresaking the living of a gate-keeper and the toil of a
prisoner of war. Therefore the inheritance of All-underHeaven
in olden days was not very great. Yet the prefect of
today, upon the day of his death, hands down luxurious
chariots to his descendants from generation to generation.
Accordingly people think much of his position.

Thus, in the matter of leaving office, men make light of
resigning from the ancient dignity of the Son of Heaven and
consider it hard to quit the present post of a prefect. Really
it is the difference between meagerness and abundance.

Indeed, those who dwell in the mountains and draw water
from the valleys, give water to each other on the occasion of
festivals; those who live in swamps hire men to open
channels for the water. Likewise, in the spring of famine
years men do not even feed their infant brothers, while in

the autumn of abundant years even strange visitors are always
well fed. Not that men cut off their blood-relations and love
passers-by, but that the feelings are different in abundance
and in scarcity. For the same reason, men of yore made light
of goods, not because they were benevolent, but because
goods were abundant; while men of today quarrel and
pillage, not because they are brutish, but because goods are
scarce. Again, men of yore made light of resigning from the
dignity of the Son of Heaven, not because their personalities
were noble, but because the power of the Son of Heaven was
scanty; while men of today make much of fighting for office
in government[4] , not because their personalities are mean,
but because the powers of the posts are great. Therefore the
sage, considering quantity and deliberating upon scarcity and
abundance, governs accordingly. So it is no charity to inflict
light punishments nor is it any cruelty to enforce severe
penalties: the practice is simply in accordance with the
custom of the age. Thus, circumstances change with the age
and measures change according to circumstances.

Of old, King Wên, located between Fêng and Kao, in a
territory of one hundred square li, practised benevolence
and righteousness and won the affection of the Western
Barbarians, till he finally became ruler[5] of All-under-Heaven.
King Yen of Hsü, located to the east of the Han River in a
territory of five hundred square li, practised benevolence and
righteousness, till the states that ceded their territories and
paid tributary visits to his court numbered thirty-six[6] . King

Wên of Ching, fearing lest King Yen should do him harm,
raised armies, attacked Hsü, and finally destroyed it.[7]
Thus, King Wên practising benevolence and righteousness
became ruler of All-under-Heaven, while King Yen practising
benevolence and righteousness lost his state. Evidently
benevolence and righteousness once serviceable in olden
times are not so at present. Hence the saying: "There are
as many situations as there are generations." In the time of
Shun the Miao[8] tribes disobeyed. When Yü moved to send
an expedition against them, Shun said: "By no means. As
our Teh[9] is not great, any resort to arms is not in accord with
the Tao[10] ." Thenceforth for three years he cultivated the
ways of civic training and then he made a parade of shields
and battle-axes, whereupon the Miao tribes submitted. In a
subsequent age, during the war with the Kung-kung tribes
men using short iron weapons hardly reached their enemies
while those whose armour was not strong suffered bodily
injuries. It means that mere parade with shields and battle-axes
once effective in olden times is not so at present. Hence
the saying: "Situations differ, so measures change."

Men of remote antiquity strove to be known as moral and
virtuous; those of the middle age struggled to be known as
wise and resourceful; and now men fight for the reputation
of being vigorous and powerful. When Ch`i was about to
attack Lu, Lu sent Tzŭ-kung to dissuade Ch`i. To the peace

envoy the spokesman of Ch`i said: "Your speech is not
ineloquent. But what we want is territory, and that is not
what you are talking about."[11] In the end Ch`i raised armies,
invaded Lu, and settled the inter-state boundary at ten li
from the city-gate of the capital of Lu.

Thus, although King Yen was benevolent and righteous,
Hsü went to ruin; although Tzŭ-kung was benevolent and
righteous, Lu was dismembered. From such a viewpoint,
indeed, benevolence, righteousness, eloquence, and intelligence,
are not instruments to maintain the state. If the
benevolence of King Yen were put aside and the intelligence
of Tzŭ-kung extinguished, and if the forces of Hsü and Lu
were exerted, they could resist the powers of ten thousand
chariots. Then the ambitions of Ch`i and Ching could never
be accomplished in those two states.

Thus, we see that ancients and moderns have different
customs, new and old have different measures. To govern
with generous and lenient regulations a people in imminent
danger is the same as to drive wild horses without reins or
slips. This is a calamity of ignorance.

In these days, the Literati[12] and the Mohists[13] all praise the
early kings for practising impartial love for which the people
revered[14] them as parents. How do they know that was so?
They say: "We know that was so because whenever the
Minister of Punishment inflicted any penalty, the ruler would
stop having music, and at the news of any capital punishment

he would shed tears. This is the reason why we praise the
early kings."

Indeed, from the proposition that if ruler and minister act
like father and son, there is always order, there can be inferred
the judgment that there are no disorderly fathers and sons.
It is human nature, however, that nobody is more affectionate
than parents. If both parents reveal love to their children, and
yet order is not always found in a family, then how could there
be no disorder in a state even though the ruler deepens his
love for the ministers? Since the early kings loved the people
not more than parents love their children, and children do
not always refrain from causing disturbance, how could the
people so easily keep order?

Moreover, when a penalty was inflicted in accordance with
the law, the ruler shed tears therefor. By so doing he intended
to show his benevolence but not to do any good to political
order. To shed bitter tears and to dislike penalties, is benevolence;
to see the necessity of inflicting penalties, is law.
Since the early kings held to the law and never listened to
weeping, it is clear enough that benevolence cannot be
applied to the attainment of political order.

Still further, the people are such as would be firmly
obedient to authority, but are rarely able to appreciate
righteousness. For illustration, Chung-ni, who was a sage
of All-under-Heaven, cultivated virtuous conduct, exemplified
the right way, and travelled about within the seas;
but those within the seas who talked about his benevolence
and praised his righteousness and avowed discipleship to
him, were only seventy. For to honour benevolence was
rare and to practise righteousness was hard. Notwithstanding
the vastness of All-under-Heaven, those who could become

his avowed disciples, were only seventy, and there was only
one person really benevolent and righteous—Chung-ni himself!
Contrary to this, Duke Ai of Lu, inferior ruler as he
was, when he faced the south and ruled the state, found
nobody among the people within the boundary daring disobedience.
This was because the people are by nature
obedient to authority. As by exercising authority it is easy
to lord it over people, Chung-ni remained minister while
Duke Ai continued on the throne. Not that Chung-ni
appreciated the righteousness of Duke Ai but that he submitted
to his authority. Therefore, on the basis of righteousness
Chung-ni would not have yielded to Duke Ai, but by
virtue of authority Duke Ai did lord it over Chung-ni!
Now, the learned men of today, when they counsel the Lord
of Men, assert that if His Majesty applied himself to the
practice of benevolence and righteousness instead of making
use of victory-ensuring authority, he would certainly become
ruler of All-under-Heaven. This is simply to require every
lord of men to come up to the level of Chung-ni and all the
common people of the world to act like his disciples. It is
surely an ineffectual measure.

Now suppose there is a boy who has a bad character. His
parents are angry at him, but he never makes any change.
The villagers in the neighbourhood reprove him, but he is
never thereby moved. His masters teach him, but he never
reforms. Thus with all the three excellent disciplines, the
love of his parents, the conduct of the villagers, and the
wisdom of the masters, applied to him, he makes no change,
not even a hair on his shins is altered. It is, however, only
after the district-magistrate sends out soldiers in accordance
with the law to search for wicked men that he becomes afraid

and changes his ways and alters his deeds. So the love of
parents is not sufficient to educate children. But if it is
necessary to have the severe penalties of the district-magistrate
come at all, it is because people are naturally spoiled
by love and obedient to authority[15] .

Thus, over a city-wall forty feet[16] high, even Lou-chi[17]
could not pass, for it is steep; but on a mountain four
thousand feet high even crippled she-goats can easily graze,
for it is flat-topped.[18] For the same reason the intelligent king
makes his laws strict and his punishments severe. Again,
where there is a piece of cloth eight[19] or sixteen[20] feet long,
common people would not give it up, but where there is
molten gold two thousand pounds in weight, even Robber
Shih would not pick it up. Thus, if no harm at all should
come to them[21] , people would not give up eight or sixteen
feet of cloth; but if their hands would always be hurt, they
would never dare to pick up even two hundred pounds of
molten gold. Therefore, the intelligent ruler makes his
punishments definite.

That being so, rewards should not be other than great and
certain, thus making the people regard them as profitable;
punishments should not be other than severe and definite,

thus making the people fear them; and laws should not be
other than uniform and steadfast, thus making the people
comprehend them. Consequently, if the ruler in bestowing
rewards makes no change and in carrying out punishments
grants no pardon, but adds honour to rewards and disgrace
to punishments, then both the worthy and the unworthy will
exert their efforts.

That is not true at present. On the one hand, ranks are
conferred for meritorious services; but on the other, official
careers are scorned. Rewards are bestowed for diligent
tillage, but hereditary occupations[22] are slighted. Whoever
declines appointment to office is shunned, but his contempt
for worldly affairs is esteemed. Whoever transgresses prohibitions
is convicted, but his boldness is admired. Thus
there are nowadays opposed to each other the objectives of
honour and disgrace as well as of reward and punishment.
Small wonder laws and interdicts are ruined and the people
are becoming more and more violent.

Now, he who would always fall on the enemy when his
brother is attacked, is called upright; he who would always
resent an insult to his good friend, is called pure. Yet once
these deeds of uprightness and purity are done, the law of the
ruler is violated. In case the lord of men esteems such deeds
of uprightness and purity and forgets the crime violating his
prohibitions, the people will be honoured according to their
boldness and the magistrates will be unable to control them.
Again, he who gets clothes and food without working hard,
is called capable; he who gets honours without rendering
any meritorious service in war, is called worthy. Yet once

the deeds of capability and worthiness are done, the army will
become weak and the land will be waste. If the Lord of Men
is delighted at such deeds of worthiness and capability and
forgets the calamities of the army in decline and the land in
waste, then private advantage will prevail and public welfare
will come to naught.

The literati by means of letters disturbed laws, the cavaliers
by means of weapons transgressed prohibitions. Yet the lord
of men respects them both. That is the reason why disorder
prevails. Indeed, every departure from laws ought to be
condemned, but all the professors are taken into office on
account of their literary learning. Again, every transgression
of prohibitions ought to be punished, but all cavaliers are
accorded patronage because of their private swords.[23] Thus,
what the law prohibits is what the ruler himself recognizes;
what the magistrate punishes is what the sovereign himself
maintains. Thus legal standard and personal inclination are
in conflict. Without any fixed standard, however, even ten
Yellow Emperors would not be able to rule. Therefore, those
who practise benevolence and righteousness, should not be
praised; for, if praised, they would damage meritorious
achievements. Again, those who specialize in refinement and
learning, should not be employed; for, if employed, they
would confuse the law of the state.

Of old, there was in the Ch`u State a man named Chi-kung.
Once his father stole a sheep, wherefore he reported to the
authorities. Thereupon the prefect said, "Put him to death",
as he thought the man was loyal to the ruler but undutiful to
his father. So that man was tried and executed. From this it

can be seen that the honest subject of the ruler was an
outrageous son of his father.

Again, there was a man of Lu, who followed the ruler to
war, fought three battles, and ran away thrice. When
Chung-ni asked him his reason, he replied: "I have an old
father. Should I die, nobody would take care of him." So
Chung-ni regarded him as a man of filial piety, praised him,
and exalted him. From this it can be seen that the dutiful son
of the father was a rebellious subject of the ruler. Naturally,
following the punishment of the honest man by the prefect,
no other culprit in Ch`u was ever reported to the authorities
and after the reward of the runaway by Chung-ni, the people
of Lu were apt to surrender and run away. The interests of
superior and inferior are thus so different that it is certainly
impossible to expect the Lord of Men both to praise the deed
of the common man and to promote the welfare of the Altar
of the Spirits of Land and Grain.

In olden times, when Ts`ang Chieh invented the system
of writing, he assigned the element "self-centered"[24] to
the character "private"[25] ; and combined the elements,
"opposite to" and "private", to form the character
"public"[26] . The contradiction between "public" and
"private" was thus from the beginning well understood by
Ts`ang Chieh. To regard them both as having identical
interest at the present time, is a calamity of thoughtlessness.

That being so, speaking of the common man, there comes
first the cultivation of benevolence and righteousness and
then the practice of refinement and learning. Having cultivated
benevolence and righteousness, he will get office.
Having practised refinement and learning, he will become
an erudite teacher. Having become an erudite teacher, he
will become celebrated for his honours. This is the ideal
career of the common man. However, it may be that with
no merit one gets office, with no rank one becomes celebrated
for one's honours. If there be any government like this, the
state will certainly be in chaos and the lord in peril.

Therefore, incompatible things do not coexist. For
instance, to reward those who kill their enemies in battle,
and at the same time to esteem deeds of mercy and generosity;
to reward with ranks and bounties those who capture enemy
cities, and at the same time to believe in the theory of
impartial[27] love; to improve armour and encourage warriors
as provisions against emergencies, and at the same time to
admire the ornaments of the robes and girdles of the civil
gentry; to depend upon the farmers for enriching the state
and upon the warriors for resisting the enemies, and at the
same time to honour the men of letters; and to neglect the
men who respect the superior and revere the law, and at the
same time to maintain gangs of wandering cavaliers and self-seeking
swordsmen: out of such incompatible acts, how can
a state attain order and strength? When the state is at peace,
literati and cavaliers are supported; once an emergency arises,
armed officers are taken into service. Thus, the privileged
are not used; the used are not privileged. For this reason,
men who ought to attend to public affairs neglect their duties,

while wandering scholars daily increase in numbers. This is
the reason why the age is full of chaos.

Moreover, what the age calls "worthy" consists of
merciful and faithful deeds; what it calls "wise" consists of
subtle and mysterious words. Such subtle and mysterious
words are hard even for the wisest men to understand. Now,
of you set up laws for the masses in such terms as are hard
for the wisest men to understand, then the people will find
no way to comprehend them. Just as men who find not even
coarse rice to fill them would not think of wine and meat,
and just as those who have not even rags to wear would not
think of silk and embroidered garments, in governing the
world, if one is not able to settle affairs of the most urgent
need, one should pay no attention to things short of great
urgency. Now most of the affairs to be administered are
ordinary civil cases. Yet not to use standards that ordinary
men and women plainly understand, but to long for those
theories which even the wisest do not comprehend; that
certainly is the negation of government. Therefore subtle
and mysterious words are no business of the people.

Indeed, men who regard[28] deeds of mercy and faithfulness
as worthy will naturally honour gentlemen who are not
deceitful, but those that honour gentlemen who are not
deceitful might have no means to escape deception. The
commoners, in cultivating friendships, have neither wealth
to benefit each other nor influence to terrify each other.
Naturally they seek for gentlemen who are not deceitful.
Now the Lord of Men avails himself of his position to control
men and possesses the wealth of a state. If he makes rewards

large and punishments severe and thereby succeeds in holding
his handles[29] to improve points illuminated by his brilliant
policies, then ministers like T`ien Ch`ang and Tzŭ-han,
wicked as they were, would not dare to deceive him, not to
mention gentlemen who are not deceitful. Now there are not
more than ten truly merciful and faithful men in this country,
whereas there are hundreds of official posts. So if only
merciful and faithful men are selected for public service, the
candidates will not be sufficient for filling all the official posts.
In that case, those who maintain order would be few while
disturbers would abound. Therefore, the way of the enlightened
lord is to unify laws instead of seeking for wise
men, to solidify policies instead of yearning after faithful
persons. In consequence, as long as laws do not fail to
function, the body of officials will practise neither villainy
nor deception.

In these days, the lord of men, as regards speeches, is
delighted at their eloquence but does not seek for their
consequences,[30] and, as regards the utility of deeds, admires
their fame but does not strictly check over their accomplishments.
For this reason, the people of All-under-Heaven,
when making speeches, strive for eloquence but do not care
for actual usefulness. As a result, men who quote the early
kings and preach benevolence and righteousness, fill up the
court, wherefore the government can not be freed from
disorder. Men who devote themselves to practical deeds

struggle for eminence, but do not bring about any meritorious
service. Small wonder wise men retire to dwell in rocky
caves, decline all bounties, and refuse to accept any offer;
while soldiers are not immune from degeneration and the
government is not freed from chaos. What is the reason for
this? It is this: in what the people revere and what the
sovereign respects, lies the cause of disturbing the state.

Now the people within the boundary all talk about political
order, and, though in every family there are men who preserve
copies of the Laws of Shang Yang and Kuan Chung, yet the
state is becoming poorer and poorer. This is because many
talk about tillage but few take up the plough. Again, everybody
within the boundary talks about strategy, and, though
in every family there are men who preserve copies of the
Books of Sun Wu and Wu Ch`i, yet the army is becoming
weaker and weaker. This is because many talk about warfare
but few put on armour.

Therefore, the enlightened sovereign uses his men's
strength but does not listen to their words, rewards them
for their meritorious services but always eliminates the useless.
The people, accordingly, exert themselves to the point of
death in obeying the sovereign.

Indeed, tillage requires physical force, and is toil. But the
people who perform it say, "Through it we can become
wealthy." Again, warfare, as a matter of fact, involves risks.
But the people who wage it say, "Through it we can become
noble." Now, if those who cultivate refinement and learning
and practise persuasion and eloquence get the fruits of wealth
without the toil of tillage, and gain the honour of nobility
with no risk in warfare, then who will not do the same?
Naturally, one hundred men will attend to "wisdom" while

only one man will exert physical energy. If men who attend
to "wisdom" are many, the law will go for naught; if men
who exert physical energy are few, the state will fall into
poverty. That is the reason why the world is in chaos.

Therefore, in the state of the enlightened sovereign there
is no literature written on bamboo slips, but the law is the
only teaching; there are no quoted sayings of the early kings,
but the magistrates are the only instructors; there is no
valour through private swords, but slaughter of the enemy is
the only courageous deed. As a result, the people, within
the boundary, when practising persuasion and eloquence,
always conform to the law; when up and doing, they always
aim at meritorious services; and when pretending to valour,
they always exert themselves in the army. Therefore, in time
of peace the state is rich; in time of emergency the army is
strong. Such is what they call the resources of the ruler.
Having stored up the resources of the ruler, the sovereign
waits for the enemy state to reach an unguarded moment.
Those who have surpassed the Five Emperors and have
rivalled the Three Kings, have always followed this method.

The same is not true in these days, however. Inside, the
gentry and the commoners do as they please; outside,
eloquent speakers create their own favourable circumstances.
If both foreign and home affairs alike are bad, is it not
dangerous for the ruler to confront strong enemies? It is so
particularly because the ministers who speak on foreign
affairs either side with the advocates of the Perpendicular
Union or the Horizontal Alliance, or have personal hatred
for foreign states and want to utilize the forces of the native
state. Now, neither the Perpendicular Union aiming to attack
a single strong state by uniting all the weak ones, nor the

Horizontal Alliance aiming to attack the weak ones by
serving a single strong state, is a policy to maintain the
existence and prosperity of a state.

Now, ministers who speak about the Horizontal Alliance,
all say: "If we do not serve a big power, we will have
enemies and suffer disasters." To serve a big power, however,
always[31] requires material concessions. Wherefore they must
entrust their whole territory to the strong state and put their
own state seal in pawn for military help.[32] If territorial concessions
are offered, the land will be cut off; if the state seal
is handed over, the prestige will be impaired. When the land
is cut off, the state will be dismembered; when the prestige
is impaired, the government will fall into chaos. Thus, before
actualizing the benefit from serving a big power forming the
Horizontal Alliance, the land is already dismembered and the
government disordered.

Again, ministers who speak about the Perpendicular
Union, all say: "If we do not save small states and attack
big powers, we will lose the favour of All-under-Heaven.
If we lose the favour of All-under-Heaven, our state will fall
into peril. If our state falls into peril, our lord will fall into
contempt." To save small states, however, always[33] requires
material sacrifices, wherefore you must mobilize armies and
oppose big powers. Yet when you start to save a small state,
you are not always able to preserve it; when you oppose[34] a
big power, you can not always be sure that there is no discord
between you and your allies. If there is any such discord at

all, you will be dominated by the big power. As soon as you
send out reinforcements, the whole army will be defeated.
Before you turn back to assume the defensive, the city will
have fallen into the hands of the enemies. Thus, before you
get the benefit of saving the small state and thereby form the
Perpendicular Union, your land is already occupied and your
troops defeated.

For this reason, he who insists on serving the strong state
really means to hold his office through foreign influence; he
who insists on saving the small state, really means to seek
advantage abroad by virtue of his prestige at home. Before
the state is benefited, the ministers have got estates and high
emoluments. Thus, though the sovereign falls into contempt,
the ministers are honoured; though the land of the state is
cut off, their own families have become wealthy. If their
projects succeed, they will become mighty in authority; if
their projects fail, they will retire from active life with riches
in their pockets.

However, such is the usual way the Lord of Men listens to
the proposals of his ministers that before their projects are
successful, their ranks and bounties are already exalted. And,
if they are not punished when their projects fail, who can be
sure that the itinerant gentlemen are not going to display
their irresponsible sophistries elsewhere and count on unexpected
good fortune? Nevertheless, why is heed paid to such
frivolous ideas of the persuasive politicians as would break
the state and ruin the lord? That is because the Lord of Men
never distinguishes between public and private benefits, never
scrutinizes whether the ideas are true or false, and never
definitely enforces censure and punishment.

The itinerants all say, "Success in foreign relations at its

best can help the prince become ruler of All-under-Heaven
or, at least, can make the state secure." Indeed, the ruler of
All-under-Heaven must be able to attack others. If secure,
he can not be attacked by others. If strong, he is able to
attack others. If in order, he can not be attacked by others.
Accordingly, order and strength should not be dependent
upon external factors: both depend upon internal administration.
Now, if the sovereign does not carry out his laws
and policies at home but counts on the wise men's services
abroad, order and strength will not be attained.

There is a common saying: "Wearers of long sleeves are
skilful in dancing; possessors of much money are skilful in
trading." It means that people who are resourceful acquire
skill very easily. Accordingly, in the state that is orderly and
strong it is easy to devise schemes, but in the state that is
weak and chaotic it is hard to make any plan at all. For
illustration, the schemes adopted by Ch`in, though changed
ten times, rarely fail; whereas any plan adopted by Yen, once
changed, rarely succeeds. Not that whatever Ch`in adopts is
always clever and whatever Yen adopts is always stupid, but
that the factors of order and chaos are different.

Thus, Chou quit Ch`in and joined the Perpendicular
Union only to be taken within a year; and Wei left Wey for
the Horizontal Alliance only to be ruined in half a year. This
means that Chou was destroyed by the Perpendicular Union
while Wei was ruined by the Horizontal Alliance. Supposing
Chou and Wei postponed their plans to join the Perpendicular
Union and the Horizontal Alliance and strictly improved
the political order within their boundaries, made their
laws and interdicts clear, made their rewards and punishments
definite, utilized their natural resources to increase provisions,

and constrained their peoples even to the point of death in
strengthening the defensive preparations of the city-walls;
then All-under-Heaven would find little gain in occupying
their lands and great harm in attacking their states, so that
even a state of ten thousand chariots would not dare to come
to camp beneath their well-fortified city-walls and expose its
weaknesses to the attack of strong enemies. This is the way
to escape destruction. To abandon this way of escaping
destruction and to follow the road to inevitable ruin is the
fault of the governor of the state. With wisdom exhausted
abroad[35] and politics disordered at home,[36] no state can be
saved from ruin.

The plan of the people for themselves[37] is to seek only for
security and profit and to avoid danger and poverty. Now,
if you force them to attack and fight, they face death at the
hands of enemies at the front, and death through official
punishment at the rear. That is peril, indeed! Again, they
have to abandon their own domestic affairs and undergo the
toil of military service.[38] In the long run their households
are reduced to poverty. Yet the ruler takes no notice of it.
That is destitution, indeed! Wherever lie destitution and
danger, how can the people do other than shun them?
Naturally they would frequent the gates of the private residences
of influential men so as to exempt themselves from
military service. If exempted from military service, they keep
aloof from warfare. If aloof from warfare, they can remain

in safety. Again, if they can by virtue of bribes approach the
authorities concerned, they get what they want. If they get
what they want, they have profit and security.[39] Wherever
lie security and profit, how can the people do other than
crowd in[40] ? Hence, citizens in public service are few but
private protégés are numerous.[41]

Indeed, the enlightened king so administers his state as to
diminish the number of tradesmen, craftsmen, and idlers, and
to lower their names in order to incline their minds to primary
callings and to lessen their interest in secondary occupations.[42]
In the present age, if the requests of the courtiers prevail at
all, then office and rank can be purchased. If office and rank
are purchasable, tradesmen and craftsmen, as they have
money, will no longer be low in status. If forged money
and faked articles[43] can circulate at the market-place, traders
will no longer fall short of demands and supplies. If the
profits they make thereby are twice as much as by farming
and the honours they get thereby surpass those of tillers and
warriors, men of firm integrity and strong character will
become few while merchants and tradesmen[44] will increase
in number.

For such reasons, it is a common trait of the disorderly
state that its learned men adore the ways of the early kings by
pretending to benevolence and righteousness and adorn their
manners and clothes and gild their eloquent speeches so as to
cast doubts on the law of the present age and thereby beguile
the mind of the lord of men; that its itinerant speakers[45]
advocate deceptive theories and utilize foreign influence to
accomplish their self-seeking purposes at the expense of their
Altar of the Spirits of Land and Grain; that wearers of
private swords gather pupils and dependents and set up
standards of self-discipline and fidelity with a view to
cultivating their fame but thereby violate the interdicts of
the Five Ministries[46] ; that the courtiers[47] assemble inside the
gates of private residences, use all kinds of bribes, and rely
on influential men's access to the sovereign in order to escape
the burden of military service; and that the tradesmen and
craftsmen disguise worthless, broken articles as proper goods,
collect useless luxuries, accumulate riches, wait for good
opportunities, and exploit the farmers. These five types of
men are the vermin of the state. Should the Lord of Men fail
to get rid of such people as the five vermin and should he not
patronize men of firm integrity and strong character, it would
be no wonder at all if within the seas there should be states
breaking up in ruin and dynasties waning and perishing.

Chapter L

LEARNED CELEBRITIES[1]
A CRITICAL ESTIMATE OF CONFUCIANS
AND MOHISTS

In the present age, the celebrities for learning are the Literati
and the Mohists. The highest figure of the Literati was K`ung
Ch`iu; the highest figure of the Mohists was Mo Ti. Since
the death of Confucius, there have appeared the School of
Tzŭ-chang, the School of Tzŭ-ssŭ, the School of the Yen
Clan, the School of the Mêng Clan, the School of the Ch`i-tiao
Clan, the School of the Chung Liang Clan, the School of the
Sun Clan, and the School of the Yo-chêng Clan. Since the
death of Mo Tzŭ, there have appeared the Mohists of the
Hsiang-li Clan, the Mohists of the Hsiang-fu Clan, and the
Mohists of Têng Ling's School. Thus, after Confucius and
Mo Tzŭ, the Literati have divided into eight schools and the
Mohists into three. In what they accept and what they reject
they are contrary to and different from one another but each
claims to be orthodox Confucian or Mohist. Now that
Confucius and Mo Tzŭ cannot come to life again, who can
determine the orthodoxy of learned men?

Confucius and Mo Tzŭ both followed Yao and Shun;
they differed in matters of acceptance and rejection, yet each
claimed to be the true Yao and Shun. Now that Yao and
Shun cannot come to life again, who is going to determine
genuineness as between the Literati and the Mohists? For
our people, who have passed through the time of Yü and

Hsia upwards of seven hundred years, and through the Yin
and Chou[2] Dynasties upwards of two thousand years, it is
impossible to determine whether the Literati or the Mohists
are right. Now, if anybody wants to scrutinize the ways of
Yao and Shun that appeared three thousand years ago, it
seems far from possible merely to imagine that! To be sure
of anything that has no corroborating evidence, is stupid;
to abide by anything that one can not be sure of, is self-deceptive.
Therefore, those who openly quote the early
kings and dogmatically uphold Yao and Shun, must be
deceitful, if not stupid. Such stupid and deceptive learning
and heretical and contradictory conduct, the intelligent
sovereign never approves.

The Mohists, for funeral rites wear winter clothes in winter
days and summer clothes in summer days, make coffins three
inches thick of Paulownia wood, and observe only three
months' mourning. Regarding this as restraint, sovereigns
of this age respect them. The Literati, on the contrary, for
funeral rites break up the household property and give sons
in pawn to compensate for the losses,[3] observe three years'
mourning till they break down in health and have to walk
with the aid of canes. Regarding this as an act of filial piety,
sovereigns of this age respect them. But, in fact, to approve
the restraint of Mo Tzŭ one has to reprove Confucius for his
extravagance; to approve the filial piety of Confucius one has
to reprove Mo Tzŭ for his impiety. Now, piety and impiety,
restraint and extravagance, all are found among the Literati
and the Mohists, and the superiors respect them equally.

According to the theory of Ch`i-tiao,[4] a man should not
change his facial colour in front of others[5] nor should he
blink even in the face of danger[6] ; if he acts wrongly, he should
give way to bondmen and bondwomen; and if he acts
aright, he should assert himself even before the feudal lords.
Regarding this as an act of integrity, sovereigns of this age
respect him. Again, according to the teaching of Sung
Yung Tzŭ, a man should delight[7] in a non-combatant
attitude towards opponents and approve of non-retaliatory
actions against enemies; if cast into prison, he should not be
ashamed; and, if insulted, he should not feel humiliated.
Regarding this as an attitude of generosity, sovereigns of this
age respect him. But, in fact, to approve the integrity of
Ch`i-tiao one has to reprove Sung Yung for his forgiveness;
to approve the generosity of Sung Yung one has to reprove
Ch`i-tiao for his fierceness. Now, generosity and integrity,
forgiveness and fierceness, all are found in these two philosophers,
and the lords of men respect them equally.

Inasmuch as stupid and deceptive studies and heretical and
contradictory theories are in conflict while the lords of men
tolerate them equally, the gentry within the seas have neither
definite forms of speech nor constant standards of conduct.
Indeed, ice and charcoal do not share the same vessel and
last long; winter and summer do not come at the same time.
Likewise, heretical and contradictory studies do not stand
together and have peace. Now that heretical studies are
equally listened to and contradictory theories are absurdly
acted upon, how can there be other than chaos? If the ruler

listens so carelessly and acts so absurdly, the same must be
true when he rules over men.

The learned gentlemen of the present age, when they speak
on political order, mostly say: "Give the poor and the
destitute land and thereby provide men of no property with
enough." However, if there are men who were originally the
same as others but have independently become able to be
perfectly self-supporting, even without prosperous years or
other income, it must be due to their diligence or to their
frugality. Again, if there are men who were originally the
same as others but have independently become poor and
destitute without suffering from any misfortune of famine and
drought or illness and malignancy or calamity and lawsuit,
it must be due to their extravagance or to their laziness.
Extravagant and lazy persons are poor; diligent and frugal
persons are rich. Now, if the superior levies money from the
rich in order to distribute alms among the poor, it means that
he robs the diligent and frugal and rewards the extravagant
and lazy. Naturally it is impossible to force people to speed
up their work and also restrain their expenditure.

Now suppose there is a man, who, holding fast to his self-righteous
principle, would not enter any city that was in
danger, would not stay in military camps, and would not
exchange a hair from his shin for any great profit in All-underHeaven.
Then be sure the sovereign of this age will respect
him therefor, honouring his wisdom, exalting his conduct,
and regarding him as a gentleman despising material trifles
and esteeming meaningful life. Indeed, the reason that the
superior lines up good fields and large houses and establishes
ranks and bounties, is to make people exert their strength to
the point of death. Yet as long as the superior honours the

gentlemen who despise material trifles and esteem meaningful
life, it is impossible to expect the people to sacrifice their
lives for his royal cause.

Suppose you keep a number of books, practise the art of
speaking, gather a band of pupils, indulge in culture and
learning, and discuss theories, then be sure sovereigns of this
age will respect you therefor, saying, "To respect worthies
is the way of the early kings." Indeed, those who are taxed
by the magistrates are farmers while those who are fed by the
superior are learned gentlemen. Being farmers, the former
are more heavily taxed; being learned gentlemen, the latter
are more liberally rewarded. Hence it is impossible to force
the people to work hard and talk little.

Again, suppose you build a standard of estimation, blend
all clever principles,[8] maintain strict self-control, and do not
act aggressively, and are sure to pursue anybody with your
sword whenever his reproachful words pass into your ears,
then sovereigns of this age will honour you as a self-respecting
gentleman. Indeed, as long as the merit of beheading in
war is not rewarded but the bravery of family quarrels is
celebrated with honours, it is impossible to force the people
to fight hard and resist enemies and have no private quarrels.
In time of peace, the state feeds the literati and the cavaliers,
but in case of emergency, it uses the armed officers. Thus,
those who have been fed, are not taken into service; those
who are taken into service, have not been fed. That is the
reason why the age is chaotic.

Further, the lord of men, in listening to a learned man, if
he approves his words, should officially put them into practice

and appoint the person to office, and, if he reproves him for
his words, should get rid of the person and put an end to
his heretical doctrine. Today, however, what is regarded as
right is not officially put into practice, and what is regarded
as wrong is not extinguished as heretical doctrine. Thus, the
right is not used, the wrong not stopped; this is the way to
chaos and ruin.

T`an-t`ai Tzŭ-yü had the manners of a gentleman. Considering
him a man of promise, Chung-ni took him into service,
and, after having dealt with him for a long time, found his
deeds not equal to his looks. Again, Tsai Yü's speech was
elegant and refined. Considering him a man of promise,
Chung-ni took him into service, and, after having dealt with
him for a long time, found his wisdom falling short of his
eloquence. Hence Confucius said: "In taking a man on the
basis of his manners I made a mistake in choosing Tzŭ-yü;
in taking a man on the basis of his words I made a mistake in
choosing Tsai Yü." Thus, notwithstanding his wisdom,
Chung-ni expressed regretful sighs for his misjudgment of
realities. Now that the new debaters of today are even more
reckless than Tsai Yü and sovereigns of this age in listening
to them are even more susceptible to delusion than Chung-ni,
if the superior appoints any debater to office on account of
delight in his words, how can a mistake be avoided? For
instance, Wey trusted to the eloquence of Mêng Mao[9] and
met disaster at the foot of Mt. Hua. Again, Chao trusted
to the eloquence of Ma-fu[10] and experienced the calamity of
Ch`ang-p`ing. These two instances well illustrate the error
in trusting to eloquence.

Indeed, if only the heated and hammered tin[11] is inspected
and only the blue and yellow glearns are observed, even Ou[12]
Yeh can not ascertain the quality of a sword. But if you hit
herons and wild geese in water with the sword and kill ponies
and horses on land with it, then even bondmen and bondwomen,
ignorant as they are, are not in doubt whether the
sword is blunt or sharp. If the teeth in the mouth are
examined and the formal features are surveyed, then even
Pai Lo could not be sure of the quality of a horse. But if you
harness it to a cart and observe it till the end of the drive,
then even bondmen and bondwomen are not in doubt
whether it is a hack or a good horse. Similarly, if only
manners and clothes are looked at and only words and phrases
are listened to, then even Chung-ni can not ascertain the
personality of a gentleman. But if you test him with an
official commission and hold him responsible for any work
done, then even the mediocre man is not in doubt whether
he is stupid or intelligent.

Therefore, as to the subordinates of the intelligent
sovereign, prime ministers must have arisen from among the
district-magistrates and gallant generals must have emerged
from among the squads of soldiers. If persons who have
rendered meritorious services are always rewarded, then the
greater ranks and bounties become the better encouraged
they will be. Again, if offices are elevated and ranks are raised,
then the greater the official responsibilities become the more
they will promote political order. Indeed, according as
ranks and bounties are raised official responsibilities promote
political order, this is the royal road to supremacy.

The possessor of a thousand li of rocky land, can not be
called rich; the possessor of a million puppets can not be
called strong. Not because the rocks are not big and the
puppets[13] are not numerous. The possessors can not be called
rich and strong, simply because great rocks do not produce
grain and puppets can not be used to resist enemies. Now,
men who get office through purchase and practise artful craft,
eat without cultivating the land. They are thus as unproductive
as uncultivated land, in the same category as great
rocks. Likewise, the literati and the cavaliers who have
rendered no meritorious service in the army but are celebrated
and prosperous,[14] are useless people, in the same class
as puppets. Those who know the calamity of great rocks and
puppets but never know that the office-purchasers, the literati,
and the cavaliers, are as harmful as uncultivated land and
useless people, do not know the similarity of one thing to
another.

For such reasons, in the cases of the princes and kings of
enemy states, though they are delighted at our righteousness,
we can not lay them under tribute as vassals[15] ; but in the
case of the feudal lords inside the passes[16] , though they disapprove

our doings, we can always make them bring birds[17]
to visit our court. Thus, whoever has great strength sees
others visit his court; whoever has little strength visits the
courts of others. Therefore the enlightened ruler strives
after might.

Indeed, the strictly kept household sees no fierce servants,
but a compassionate mother has spoilt children. From this
I know that authority and position are able to suppress
violence, but that virtue and favour are not sufficient to stop
disorder.

Indeed, the sage, in ruling the state, does not count on
people's doing him good, but utilizes their inability to do
him wrong. If he counts on people's doing him good, within
the boundary there will never be enough such persons to
count by tens. But if he utilizes people's inability to do him
wrong, an entire state can be uniformed.[18] Therefore, the
administrator of the state affairs ought to consider the many

but disregard the few. Hence his devotion not to virtue but
to law.

Similarly, if one should always count on arrows which are
straight of themselves, there would be no arrow in a hundred
generations; if one should only count on pieces of wood
which are round of themselves, there would be no wheel in a
thousand generations. Though in a hundred generations
there is neither an arrow that is straight of itself nor a wheel
that is round of itself, yet how is it then that people of every
generation ride in carts and shoot birds? It is because the tools
for straightening and bending are used. To rely not on the
tools for straightening and bending[19] but on[20] arrows straight
of themselves and wheels round of themselves, is not thought
much of by the skilful carpenter. Why? Because riding is
not a matter of one man alone, nor is archery a question of a
single shot. Reliance not on rewards and punishments but on
people who are righteous of themselves, is not highly considered
by the enlightened sovereign. Why? Because the
law of the state must not be dispensed with and whom it
regulates is not one man only. Therefore, the tactful ruler
does not follow the good that happens by accident but
practises the Tao that prevails by necessity.

Now supposing some one addressed a person, saying, "I
will make you to be wise and to live long," the world would
certainly think he was practising deception.[21] Indeed, wisdom
is a matter of nature, longevity is a matter of fate. As nature,
and fate are not what one can learn from others, to assert to
a person what men can not really do, that is what the world

calls deception. To call anybody what he can not really be,
is flattery.[22] Flattery[23] is a matter of nature, indeed. To instruct
men in benevolence and righteousness is the same as to make
assertions in the matters of intelligence and longevity, which
the sovereign with a legal standard does not heed. For
illustration, admiring the beauty of Mao-ch`iang[24] and Hsi-shih
gains one's facial looks nothing; but applying rouge,
pomade, powder, and eyebrow-paint, makes one's appearance
twice as good as before. Similarly, speaking about the
benevolence and righteousness of the early kings gains
nothing for political order; but understanding clearly our
laws and measures and determining our rewards and punishments
is the rouge, pomade, powder, and eyebrow-paint of
the state. So the enlightened sovereign urgently seeks real
aids, and regards as secondary all empty compliments. Hence
no talk about benevolence and righteousness.

Now, witches and priests, in praying for somebody, all say,
"May your age last as long as one thousand autumns and ten
thousand years." Then the sounds, "one thousand autumns
and ten thousand years", echo through the ears. As a matter
of fact, however, nobody ever testifies to the addition of a
single day to his age. That is the reason why people despise
witches and priests. Likewise, the literati of the present age,
when they counsel the lord of men, instead of speaking about
methods to attain political order at present, talk about the
achievement of political order in the past. They neither
study affairs pertaining to regulations for the officials nor
observe the conditions of the wicked and the villainous, but
all speak on the reputed glories of remote antiquity and on

the achievements of the early kings. Ornamenting their
speeches, the literati say, "If you listen to our words, you
will thereby become Hegemonic Ruler." Such people are
but witches and priests among the itinerants, whom the
sovereign with a legal standard does not heed. Therefore,
the enlightened sovereign exalts real facts, discards useless
things, and does not speak about benevolence and righteousness.
He accordingly does not listen to the words of the
learned men.

Men of today who do not know the right way to political
order, all say, "Win the hearts of the people." If they should
think of winning the hearts of the people and thereby attaining
political order, then even Yi Yin and Kuan Chung would
find no use for their statesmanship and the superior would
listen to the people only. The intelligence of the people,
however, can not be depended upon just like the mind of the
baby. If the baby does not have his head shaved, the ache
will recur[25] ; if his boil is not cut open, his trouble will turn
from bad to worse. However, to shave his head or to open
his boil someone has to hold the baby while the compassionate
mother is performing this work. Yet he keeps crying and
yelling incessantly as he does not know that suffering the
small pain will gain him a great benefit.

Now, the superior urges the tillage of rice fields and the
cultivation of grassy lands in order to increase the production
of the people, but they think the superior is cruel.
To perfect penalties and increase punishments is to suppress
wickedness, but they think the superior is severe. Again, he
levies taxes in cash and in grain to fill up the storehouses and

treasures in order thereby to relieve famine and drought and
provide for corps and battalions, but they think the superior
is greedy. Finally, he traces out every culprit within the
boundary, discriminates[26] among men without personal
favouritism. . . .[27] , and unites the forces for fierce struggle,
in order thereby to take his enemies captive, but they think
the superior is violent. These four measures are methods to
attain order and maintain peace, but the people do not know
that they ought to rejoice in them.

Indeed, the superior seeks for saintly and well-informed
men, because the intelligence of the people is not adequate for
use as directive. For instance, of old, Yü opened the Kiang[28]
and deepened the Ho[29] for draining the Great Deluge away,
but the people gathered tiles and stones to hit him. Likewise,
Tzŭ-ch`an cleared fields and planted mulberry-trees, but the
people of Chêng slandered and reviled him. Yü benefited
All-under-Heaven and Tzŭ-ch`an preserved Chêng, but both
incurred slander. Clearly enough, indeed, the intelligence of
the people is not adequately dependable. Therefore, in
appointing officials, to seek for the worthy and the wise; in
administering the government, to expect to suit the people:
both alike are causes of confusion, and can not be employed
for the attainment of political order.