University of Virginia Library

BOOK EIGHTEEN

Chapter XLVI

SIX CONTRARIETIES[1]

Who fears death and shuns difficulty, is the type of citizen
who would surrender or retreat, but the world reveres him by
calling him "a life-valuing gentleman". Who studies the
ways of the early kings and propounds theories of his own,
is the type of citizen that would neglect the law, but the world
reveres him by calling him "a cultured and learned gentleman".
Who idles his time away and obtains big awards, is
the type of citizen who would live on charities, but the world
reveres him by calling him "a talented gentleman". Who
twists his speeches and pretends to erudition, is the fraudulent
and deceitful type of citizen, but the world reveres him by
calling him "an eloquent and intelligent gentleman". Who
brandishes his sword and attacks and kills, is the violent and
savage type of citizen, but the world reveres him by calling
him "a hardy and courageous gentleman". Who saves thieves
and hides culprits, is the type of citizen that deserves the
death penalty, but the world reveres him by calling him "a
chivalrous and honourable gentleman". These six types of
citizens are what the world praises.

Who would venture risks and die in the cause of loyalty,
is the type of citizen that chooses death before infidelity, but
the world despises him by calling him "a planless subject".
Who learns little but obeys orders, is the law-abiding type of

citizen, but the world despises him by calling him "a naive
and rustic subject". Who works hard and earns his livelihood,
is the productive type of citizen, but the world despises him
by calling him "a small-talented subject". Who is frank,
generous, pure, and genuine, is the right and good type of
citizen, but the world despises him by calling him "a foolish
and silly subject". Who esteems commands and reveres
public affairs, is the superior-respecting type of citizen, but
the world despises him by calling him "a cowardly and fainthearted
subject". Who suppresses thieves and oppresses
culprits, is the superior-obeying type of citizen, but the world
despises him by calling him "a flattering and slanderous
subject". These six types of citizens are what the world
blames.

Thus, the wicked, fraudulent, and useless citizens include
six types, but the world praises them in those manners; so
do the tilling, fighting, and useful citizens include six types,
but the world blames them in these manners. These are
called "six contrarieties".

If the hemp-clothed commoners in accordance with their
private interests praise people, and if the lord of this age
believing in bubble reputations respects them, then whoever
is respected, will be accorded profits. If the hundred surnames
on account of private feud with them slander them, and
if the lord of this age, as misled by the beaten track of
men, despises them, then whoever is despised, will suffer
damage. Therefore, fame and rewards will go to selfish,
vicious citizens deserving punishment; while blame and
damages will befall public-spirited, upright gentlemen
deserving reward. If so, then to strive for the wealth and
strength of the state is impossible.

The ancients had a proverb saying: "To govern the
people is like washing one's head. Though there are falling
hairs, the washing must needs be done." Whoever regrets
the waste of the falling hairs and forgets the gain of the
growing hairs, does not know the doctrine of expediency.[2]

Indeed, opening boils causes pain; taking drugs causes
bitter taste. Yet, if boils are not opened on account of pain
and drugs not taken on account of bitterness, the person will
not live and the disease will not stop.

Now the relationship between superior and inferior
involves no affection of father and son, if anyone wishes to
rule the inferiors by practising righteousness, the relationship
will certainly have cracks. Besides, parents in relation
to children, when males are born, congratulate each other,
and, when females are born, lessen[3] the care of them. Equally
coming out from the bosoms and lapels of the parents, why
should boys receive congratulations while girls are ill-treated?
Because parents consider their future conveniences
and calculate their permanent benefits. Thus, even parents in
relation to children use the calculating mind in treating them,
how much more should those who have no affection of
parent and child?

The learned men of to-day, on counselling the lord of men,
all persuade him to discard the profit-seeking mind and follow
the way of mutual love. Thereby they demand more from
the lord of men than from parents. Such is an immature view
of human relationships: it is both deceitful and fallacious.

Naturally the enlightened sovereign would not accept it. The
sage, in governing the people, deliberates upon laws and
prohibitions. When laws and prohibitions are clear and
manifest, all officials will be in good order.[4] He makes reward
and punishment definite. When reward and punishment are
never unjust, the people will attend to public duties. If the
people attend to public duties and officials are in good order,[5]
then the state will become rich; if the state is rich, then the
army will become strong. In consequence, hegemony will
be attained. The enterprise of the Hegemonic Ruler is the
highest goal of the lord of men. With this highest goal in
view the lord of men attends to governmental affairs. Therefore,
the officials he appoints to office must have the required
abilities, and the rewards and punishments he enforces must
involve no selfishness but manifest public justice to gentry
and commoners. Whoever exerts his strength and risks his
life, will be able to accomplish merits and attain rank and
bounty. When rank and bounty have been attained, the
enterprise of wealth and nobility will be accomplished.
Now, wealth and nobility constitute the highest goal of the
ministers. With this highest goal in view the ministers attend
to their official duties. Therefore, they will work hard at the
peril of their lives and never resent even the exhaustion of
their energy. This amounts to the saying that if the ruler is
not benevolent and the ministers are not loyal, hegemony
cannot be attained.

Indeed, the culprits, if infallibly detected, would take
precautions; if definitely censured, they would stop. If not
detected, they would become dissolute; if not censured, they

would become active. For illustration, when cheap articles
are left at a deserted spot, even Tsêng Shan and Shih Ch`in
can be suspected of stealing them; whereas when a hundred
pieces of gold hang at the market-place, even the greatest
robber dare not take them. Even Tsêng Shan and Shih Ch`in
are liable to suspicion at a deserted spot if detection is
unlikely; if sure to be found out, the greatest robber dare
not touch the gold hanging at the market-place.

Therefore, the enlightened sovereign in governing the
state would increase custodians and intensify penalties and
make the people stop vices according to law but not owing
to their own sense of integrity. For illustration, mothers love
children twice as much as fathers do, but a father enforces
orders among children ten times better than a mother does.
Similarly, officials have no love for the people, but they
enforce orders among the people ten thousand times better
than their parents do. Parents heap up their love but their
orders come to naught; whereas officials exercise force and
the people obey them. Thus, you can easily make the choice
between severity and affection.

Furthermore, what parents desire of children is safety and
prosperity in livelihood and innocence in conduct. What the
ruler requires of his subjects, however, is to demand their
lives in case of emergency and exhaust their energy in time of
peace. Now, parents, who love their children and wish[6]
them safety and prosperity, are not listened to; whereas the
ruler, who neither loves nor benefits his subjects but demands
their death and toil, can enforce his orders. As the enlightened
sovereign knows this principle, he does not cultivate the

feeling of favour and love, but extends his influence of
authority and severity. Mothers love sons with deep love,
but most of the sons are spoilt, for their love is over-extended;
fathers show their sons less love and teach them with light
bamboos,[7] but most of the sons turn out well, for severity
is applied.

If any family of to-day, in making property, share hunger
and cold together and endure toil and pain with one another,
it would be such a family that can enjoy warm clothes and
nice food in time of warfare and famine. On the contrary,
those who help one another with clothing and food and amuse
one another with entertainments, would become such families
that give wives in marriage and set children for sale in time of
famine and during the year of drought. Thus, law as the way to
order may cause gain at first, but will give gain in the long run;
whereas benevolence as the way to order may give pleasure
for the moment, but will become fruitless in the end.
Measuring their relative weights and choosing the one for
the greatest good, the sage would adopt the legal way of
mutual perseverance and discard the benevolent[8] way of
mutual pity. The teachings of the learned men all say,
"Mitigate penalties". This is the means of inviting turmoil
and ruin. In general, the definiteness of reward and punishment
is based on encouragement and prohibition. If rewards
are liberal, it is easy to get what the superior wants; if punishments
are heavy, it is easy to forbid what the superior hates.
Indeed, whoever wants benefit, hates injury, which is the
opposite of benefit. Then how can there be no hatred for
the opposite of the wanted? Similarly, whoever wants order,

hates chaos, which is the opposite of order. For this reason,
who wants order urgently, his rewards must be liberal; who
hates chaos badly, his punishments must be heavy. Now,
those who apply light penalties are neither serious in hating
chaos nor serious in wanting order. Such people are both
tactless and helpless. Therefore, the distinction[9] between the
worthy and the unworthy, between the stupid and the
intelligent,[10] depends on whether reward and punishment are
light or heavy.

Moreover, heavy penalties are not for the sole purpose of
punishing criminals. The law of the intelligent sovereign,
in suppressing rebels, is not disciplining only those who are
being suppressed, for to discipline only the suppressed is
the same as to discipline dead men only[11] ; in penalizing
robbers, it is not disciplining only those who are being
penalized, for to discipline only the penalized is the same as to
discipline convicts only. Hence the saying: "Take seriously
one culprit's crime and suppress all wickednesses within the
boundaries." This is the way to attain order. For the heavily
punished are robbers, but the terrified and trembling are good
people. Therefore, why should those who want order doubt
the efficacy of heavy penalties?

Indeed, liberal rewards are meant not only to reward men
of merit but also to encourage the whole state. The rewarded
enjoy the benefits; those not as yet rewarded look forward
to their future accomplishment. This is to requite one man
for his merit and to encourage the whole populace within the

boundaries. Therefore, why should those who want order
doubt the efficacy of liberal rewards?

Now, those who do not know the right way to order all
say: "Heavy penalties injure the people. Light penalties can
suppress villainy. Then why should heavy penalties be
necessary?" Such speakers are really not well versed in the
principles of order. To be sure, what is stopped by heavy
penalties is not necessarily stopped by light penalties; but
what is stopped by light penalties is always stopped by heavy
penalties. For this reason, where the superior sets up heavy
penalties, there all culprits disappear. If all culprits disappear,
how can the application of heavy penalties be detrimental to
the people?

In the light of the so-called "heavy penalties", what the
culprits can gain, is slight, but what the superior inflicts, is
great. As the people never venture a big penalty for the sake
of a small gain, malefactions will eventually disappear. In
the face of the so-called "light penalties", however, what
the culprits gain, is great, but what the superior inflicts, is
slight. As the people long for the profit and ignore the slight
punishment, malefactions never will disappear. Thus, the
early sages had a proverb, saying: "Nobody stumbles
against a mountain, but everybody trips over an ant-hill."
The mountain being large, everyone takes notice[12] of it; the
ant-hill being small, everyone disregards it. Now supposing
penalties were light, people would disregard them. To let
criminals go unpunished is to drive the whole state to the
neglect of all penalties; to censure criminals properly is to
set traps for the people. Thus, light punishment is an

ant-hill to the people. For this reason, the policy[13] of light
punishment would either plunge the state into confusion or
set traps for the people. Such a policy may thus be said to
be detrimental to the people.

The learned men of to-day, one and all, cite the panegyrics
in the classics, and, without observing closely the real facts,
of the present age, say: "If the superior does not love the
people and always levies exactions and taxations, then living
expenses will become insufficient and the inferiors will hate[14]
the superior. Hence the chaos in the world." This means
that if the superior lets the people have enough money to
spend and loves them besides, then notwithstanding light
punishment order can be attained. Such a saying is not true.
Generally speaking, men incur heavy punishment[15] only after
they have had enough money. Therefore, though you let
them have enough money to spend and love them dearly,
yet light penalties cannot get them out of disorder.

Take, for example, the beloved sons of wealthy families,
who are given sufficient money to spend. Having sufficient
money to spend, they spend it freely. Spending money freely,
they indulge in extravagance. The parents, loving them so
much, cannot bear to restrict them. Not restricted, they
become self-willed. Being extravagant, they impoverish their
families. Being self-willed, they practise violence. Such is
the calamity of deep love and light penalty, even though
there is enough money to spend.

Men as a whole, while living, if they have enough money
to spend, do not use energy; if the superior's rule is weak,

they indulge in doing wrong. He who has enough money to
spend and yet still exerts himself strenuously, can be nobody
but Shên-nung. Those who cultivate their conduct though
the superior's rule is weak, can be nobody but Tsêng Shan and
Shih Ch`iu. Clearly enough, indeed, the masses of people
cannot live up to the levels of Shên-nung, Tsêng Shan and
Shih Ch`iu.

Lao Tan[16] said: "Who knows how to be content, gets no
humiliation, who knows where to stop, risks no vitiation."[17]
Indeed, who on account of vitiation and humiliation seeks
nothing other than contentment, can be nobody but Lao Tan.
Now, to think that by contenting the people order can be
attained is to assume everybody to be like Lao Tan. For
illustration, Chieh, having the dignity of the Son of Heaven,
was not content with the honour; and, having the riches
within the four seas, was not content with the treasures. The
ruler of men, though able to content the people, cannot
content all of them with the dignity of the Son of Heaven
while men like Chieh would not necessarily be content with
the dignity of the Son of Heaven. If so, even though the
ruler might attempt to content the people, how could order
be attained? Therefore, the intelligent sovereign, when
governing the state, suits his policy to the time and the affairs
so as to increase his financial resources, calculates taxes and
tributes so as to equalize the poor and the rich, extends ranks
and bounties for the people so as to exert their wisdom and
ability, enlarges penal implements so as to forbid villainy and
wickedness, and makes the people secure riches by virtue of
their own efforts, receive punishments owing to their criminal
offences, get rewards by performing meritorious services,

and never think of any gift by beneficence and favour. Such
is the course of imperial and kingly government.

If all men are asleep, no blind man will be noticed; if all
men remain silent, no mute will be detected. Awake them
and ask each one to see, or question them and ask each one to
reply. Then both the blind and the mute will be at a loss.
Likewise, unless their speeches be heeded, the tactless will not
be known; unless appointed to office, the unworthy will not
be known. Heed their speeches and seek their truth; appoint
them to office and hold them responsible for the results of
their work. Then both the tactless and the unworthy would
be at a loss. Indeed, when you want to get wrestlers but
merely listen to their own words, then you cannot distinguish
between a mediocre man and Wu Huo. Given tripods and
bowls, then both the weak and the strong come to the
fore. Similarly, official posts are the tripods and bowls to
able men. Entrusted with affairs, the stupid and the intelligent
will be differentiated. As a result, the tactless will not be used;
the unworthy will not be appointed to office.

Nowadays, those who find their words not adopted,
pretend to eloquence by twisting their sentences; those
who are not appointed to office, pretend to refinement by
disguising themselves. Beguiled by their eloquence and
deceived by their refinement, the sovereigns of this age
honour and esteem them. This is to tell the bright without
finding their sight and to tell the eloquent without finding
their replies, wherefore the blind and the mute never will be
detected. Contrary to this, the intelligent sovereign, whenever
he listens to any speech, would hold it accountable for
its utility, and when he observes any deed, would seek for its
merit. If so, empty and obsolete learning cannot be discussed
and praised and fraudulent action cannot be disguised.

Chapter XLVII

EIGHT FALLACIES[1]

Who does private favours to old acquaintances, is called a
kind-hearted alter ego. Who distributes alms with public
money, is called a benevolent man. Who makes light of
bounties but thinks much of himself, is called a superior man.
Who strains the law to shield his relatives, is called a virtuous
man. Who deserts official posts for cultivating personal
friendships, is called a chivalrous man. Who keeps aloof
from the world and avoids all superiors, is called lofty. Who
quarrels with people and disobeys orders, is called an
unyielding hero. Who bestows favours and attracts the
masses of people, is called a popular idol.

However, the presence of kind-hearted men implies the
existence of culprits among the magistrates; the presence of
benevolent men, the losses of public funds; the presence of
superior men, the difficulty in employing the people; the
presence of virtuous men, the violation of laws and statutes;
the appearance of chivalrous men, vacancies of official posts;
the appearance of lofty men, the people's neglect of their
proper duties; the emergence of unyielding heroes, the
inefficacy of orders; and the appearance of popular idols, the
isolation of the sovereign from the subjects.

These eight involve private honours to ruffians but great
damage to the lord of men. The opposite of these eight
involve private damage to ruffians but public benefits to the
lord of men. If the lord of men does not consider the benefits

and damage to the Altar of the Spirits of Land and Grain
but promotes the private honours of ruffians, to find neither
danger nor chaos in the state will be impossible.

To entrust men with state affairs is the pivot between life
and death, between order and chaos. If the superior has no
tact to appoint men to office, every appointment to office will
end in failure. Now, those who are taken into office by the
ruler of men are either eloquent and astute or refined and
polished. To entrust men is to let them have influence. Yet
astute men are not necessarily trustworthy. Inasmuch as the
ruler makes much of their wisdom, he is thereby misled to
trust them. If such astute men, with their calculating mind,
take advantage of their official influence and work after their
own private needs, the ruler will, no doubt, be deceived. For
astute men are not trustworthy. For the same reason, to
appoint refined gentlemen to office is to let them decide on
state affairs. Yet the refined gentlemen are not necessarily
wise. Inasmuch as the ruler makes much of their polished
manners, he is thereby misled to regard them as wise. If
such stupid men,[2] despite their mental confusion, take
advantage of their administrative posts and do as they please,
the state affairs will fall into turmoil. Thus, if the ruler has
no tact to use men, when astute men are taken into service,
he will be deceived; when refined men are appointed to
office, the state affairs[3] will fall into turmoil. Such is the
calamity of tactlessness.

According to the Tao of the enlightened ruler, the humble
can[4] criticize the faults of the noble; the inferiors must

denounce the crimes of the superiors; sincerity is judged by
the comparison of diverse opinions; and information has no
biased channel. Consequently, wise men can not practise
fraud and deceit; rewards are bestowed according to
meritorious services; men are assigned different duties
according to their respective talents; and failures are
determined in the light of original purposes. Whoever
commits an offence, is convicted; whoever has a special
talent, is given a post. Therefore, stupid men can not be
entrusted with state affairs. If astute men dare not deceive
the superior and stupid men can not decide on any state
affair, then nothing will fail.

What can be understood only by clear-sighted scholars
should not be made an order, because the people are not all
clear-sighted. What can be practised only by wise men
should not be made a law, because the people are not all wise.
Yang Chu and Mo Ti were regarded as clear-sighted by Allunder-Heaven.
Though their teachings have alleviated the
chaos of the world, yet they have not brought the world
into order. However enlightened, the creeds should not be
promulgated as decrees by any governmental organ. Pao
Chiao and Hua Chioh were regarded as wise by All-underHeaven.
Yet Pao Chiao dried up to death like a tree while
Hua Chioh drowned himself in a river. However wise, they
could not be turned into farmers and warriors. Therefore,
whoever is regarded by the lord of men as clear-sighted, must
be a wise man who would exert his eloquence; whoever is
regarded by the lord of men as honourable, must be an able
man who would do his best. Now that sovereigns of this age
give ear to useless eloquence and uphold fruitless conduct,
to strive after the wealth and strength of the state is impossible.

Erudite, learned, eloquent, and wise, as Confucius and
Mo Tzŭ were, if Confucius and Mo Tzŭ would never till and
weed farming land, what could they contribute to the state?
Cultivating the spirit of filial piety and eliminating desires as
Tsêng Shan and Shih Ch`iu did, if Tsêng Shan and Shih
Ch`iu would never fight and attack, how could they benefit
the state? The ruffians have their private advantages, the
lord of men has his public benefits. Acquiring enough
provisions without hard work and cultivating fame without
holding office, are private advantages. Clarifying laws
and statutes by forbidding literary learning and concentrating
on meritorious services by suppressing private
advantages, are public benefits. To enact the law is to lead
the people, whereas if the superior esteems literary learning,
the people will become sceptical in following[5] the law. To
reward for merit is to encourage the people, whereas if the
superior honours the cultivation of virtuous conduct, the
people will become lazy in producing profits. If the superior
holds literary learning in high esteem and thereby causes
doubt in the law, and if he honours the cultivation of virtuous
conduct and thereby causes disbelief in meritorious work, to
strive after the wealth and strength of the state is impossible.

Neither the official tablet inserted in the girdle nor the
dancer's shield and small axe can rival[6] the real halberd[7] and
the iron harpoon. The manners of ascending and descending
the steps and standing and turning in the court can not be
compared with the march[8] of one hundred li a day. Shooting

the feigned badger's head[9] is not equivalent to discharging
swift arrows from the wide-drawn cross-bow. Shield and
walls as well as huge war chariots[10] are not as good defence
works as earthen forts, trenches, and under-ground bellows.

Men of antiquity strove to be known as virtuous; those of
the middle age struggled to be known as wise; and now men
fight for the reputation of being powerful. In antiquity,
events were few; measures were simple, naïve, crude, and
incomplete. Therefore there were men using spears made of
mother-of-pearl, and those pushing carts. In antiquity, again
people were few and therefore kind to one another; things
being few, they made light of profits and made alienations
easy. Hence followed alienations of the throne by courtesy
and transfer of the rule over All-under-Heaven. That being
so, to do courteous alienations, promote compassion and
beneficence, and follow benevolence and favour, was to run
the government in the primitive way. In the age of numerous
affairs, to employ the instruments of the management of
affairs that were few, is not the wise man's measure. Again,
in the age of great struggles, to follow the track of courteous
alienations, is not the sage's policy. For this reason, wise men
do not personally push carts and sages do not run any
government in the primitive way.

Laws are means of controlling affairs. Affairs are means of
celebrating merits. When laws are made and found to involve
difficulties, then the ruler must estimate the difficulties. If he
finds the tasks can be accomplished, then he must enact them.
If he finds the accomplishment of the tasks involves losses,

then he must estimate the losses. If he finds gains will exceed
losses, then he must transact them. For there are in Allunder-Heaven
neither laws without difficulties nor gains
without losses. For this reason, whoever takes a city whose
walls are ten thousand feet long and defeats any army of one
hundred thousand troops, though he has to lose at least one
third[11] of his men and see his arms and weapons either
crushed or broken and his officers and soldiers either killed or
injured, yet he celebrates his victory in the war and his gain
of new territory because by calculation he has harvested great
gains at the cost of small losses. Indeed, the washer of the
head has falling hair, the curer of boils hurts blood and flesh.
Who governs men, encounters difficulties in the way, and
therefore gives up the work, is a tactless man. The early
sages said: "When compasses have aberrations, or when
water has waves, though I want to correct them, nothing can
be done." This is a dictum well used in the doctrine of
expediency. For this reason, there are theories that are
plausible but far from practical and there are speeches that have
poor wording but are urgently useful. The sages, accordingly,
never looked for any harmless word but attended to difficult
tasks.

Men make no fuss about balance and weight. This is not
because they are upright and honest and would ward off
profits, but because the weight can not change the quantities
of things according to human wants nor can the balance
make things lighter or heavier according to human wishes.
Acquiescing in the inability to get what they want, people
make no fuss. In the state of an intelligent sovereign, officials

dare not bend the law, magistrates dare not practise selfishness,
and bribery does not prevail. It is because all tasks
within the boundary work like weight and balance, wherefore
any wicked minister is always found out and anybody known
for wickedness is always censured. For this reason, the
sovereign upholding the true path, instead of seeking
magistrates who are pure and honest, strives after
omniscience.

The compassionate mother, in loving her little child, is
surpassed by none. Yet, when the child has mischievous
actions, she sends him to follow the teacher; when he is
badly ill, she sends him to see the physician. For without
following the teacher he is liable to penalty; without seeing
the physician he is susceptible to death. Thus, though the
compassionate mother loves the child, she is helpless in
saving him from penalty and from death. If so, what preserves
the child is not love.

The bond of mother and child is love, the relationship of
ruler and minister is expediency. If the mother can not
preserve the family by virtue of love, how can the ruler
maintain order in the state by means of love? The intelligent
sovereign, if well versed in the principles of wealth and
strength, can get what he wants. Thus, prudence in heeding
memorials and managing affairs is the royal road to wealth
and strength. He makes his laws and prohibitions clear and
considers his schemes and plans carefully. If laws are clear,
at home there will be no worry about any emergency or
disturbance; if plans are right, there will be no disaster of
either death or captivity abroad. Therefore, what preserves
the state is not benevolence and righteousness. Who is
benevolent, is tender-hearted and beneficent and makes light of

money; who is violent, has a stubborn mind and censures
people easily. If tender-hearted and beneficent, he will be
unable to bear executions; if easy in money, he will like to
bestow favours. If he has a stubborn mind, he will reveal
his ill will to the inferiors; if he censures people easily, he
will inflict the death penalty upon anybody. Unable to bear
executions, one would remit most punishments; fond of
bestowing favours, one would mostly reward men of no
merit. When ill will is revealed, the inferiors will hate
the superiors; when arbitrary censure prevails, the people
will rebel. Therefore, when a benevolent man is on the
throne, the inferiors are wild, easily violate laws and prohibitions,
expect undue gifts, and hope for personal favours
from the superior. When a violent man is on the throne,
laws and decrees are arbitrary; ruler and minister oppose
each other; the people grumble and beget the spirit of disorder.
Hence the saying: "Both benevolence and violence
drive the state to ruin."

Who can not prepare good food but invites starvelings to
diet, can not save their lives. Who can not mow grass and
grow rice but promotes the distribution of loans, alms, prizes,
and gifts, can not enrich the people. The learned men of
today, in their speeches, do not emphasize the need of primary
callings but are fond of advocating secondary works and
preach the gospel of emptiness and saintliness so as to delight
the people. To do this is as fallacious as to invite people to
poor diet. Any persuasion of the "invitation-to-poor-diet"[12]
type the intelligent sovereign never accepts.

When writings are too sketchy, pupils debate; when laws

are too vague, vagabonds dispute[13] . For this reason, the
writings of the sages always illustrate their discussions, the
laws of the intelligent ruler always penetrate the minute details
of fact. To exert thought and consideration and forecast
gains and losses, is hard even to wise men; to hold the
antecedent word accountable for the consequent result, is
easy even to fools. The intelligent sovereign accepts what is
easy to stupid men but rejects[14] what is difficult to wise men.
Therefore, without resorting to wisdom and thought, the
state is in good order.

If the taste, whether sour or sweet, salty or insipid, is not
judged by the mouth of the sovereign but determined by the
chef, then all the cooks will slight the ruler and revere the
chef. If the note, whether high or low, clear or mixed, is not
judged by the ear of the sovereign but by the head musician,
then the blind[15] players will slight the ruler and revere the
head musician. Similarly, if the government of the state,
whether right or wrong, is not judged by the sovereign's
own tact but determined by his favourites, then the ministers
and inferiors will slight the ruler and revere the favourites.
The lord of men, who does not personally observe deeds and
examine words but merely entrusts the inferiors with all
matters of restriction and judgment, is nobody other than a
lodger and boarder in the state.

Suppose people have neither clothes nor food and suffer
neither hunger nor cold and, moreover, do not fear death,
then they will have no intention to serve the superior. If
they intend not to be ruled by the ruler, the ruler can not

employ them. Now, if the power over life and death is vested
in the chief vassals, then no decree of the sovereign can ever
prevail. Should tigers and leopards make no use of their
claws and fangs, in influence they would become the same as
rats and mice; should families worth ten thousand pieces of
gold make no use of their riches, in status they would become
the same as gate-keepers. If the ruler of a country could
neither benefit men he approves nor injure men he disapproves,
to make men fear and revere him would be impossible.

Ministers who act at random and give rein to their wants,
are said to be chivalrous; the lord of men who acts at random
and gives rein to his wants, is said to be outrageous. Ministers
who slight the superior, are said to be brave[16] ; the lord of
men who slights the inferiors is said to be violent. While the
principles of conduct follow the same track, the inferiors
thereby receive praises and the superior thereby incurs blame.
If the ministers gain so much, the lord of men will lose so
much. In the state of an intelligent sovereign, however, there
are noble ministers but no powerful ministers. By noble
ministers are meant those whose raʼnks are high and whose
posts are big; by powerful ministers are meant those whose
counsels are adopted and whose influences are enormous.
In the state of the intelligent sovereign, again, officials are
raised and ranks are granted according to their respective
merits,[17] wherefore there are noble ministers; words always
turn into deeds[18] and any fraud is always censured, wherefore
there are no powerful ministers.

Chapter XLVIII

EIGHT CANONS[1]

1. Accordance with Human Feelings[2] :
Accumulation of Wisdom[3]

Generally speaking, the order of All-under-Heaven must
accord with human feelings. Human feelings have likes and
dislikes, wherefore reward and punishment can be applied.
If reward and punishment are applicable, prohibitions and
orders will prevail and the course of government will be
accomplished. As the ruler has the handles in his grip and
thereby upholds his august position, what is ordered works
and what is prohibited stops. The handles are regulators of
life and death; the position is the means of overcoming the
masses.

If dismissal and appointment have no constant rule, the
sovereign's prerogative will be profaned; if matters of reward
and punishment are administered in common by the sovereign
and the inferiors, the sovereign's authority will be shaken.
For this reason, the intelligent sovereign does not listen with
the attitude of love nor does he scheme with the sense of
delight. For, if he does not compare the words he heeds, his
prerogative will be shaken by rapacious ministers; if he does
not make use of the ministers' wisdom and strength, he will

be harassed by the ministers. Therefore, the sovereign, when
enforcing regulations, is as magnificent as heaven, and, when
using men, is as mysterious as the spirit. For heaven cannot
be confuted and the spirit cannot be harassed by human
beings. When the position functions and the training is
strict, though the ruler acts contrary to the world, nobody
dares to disobey. Once blame and praise prevail under a
unified system, nobody dares to dispute. Therefore, to
reward the wise and punish the violent is the best way to exalt
good people; to reward the outrageous and punish the wise
is the extremity to exalt bad people, which is said to be
rewarding participants in wickedness and punishing
opponents to it.

Now, rewards should not be otherwise than liberal, so that
the people will consider them profitable; honours should
not be otherwise than attractive, so that the people will
consider them glorious; censures should not be otherwise
than strict, so that the people will consider them severe;
and blame should not be otherwise than odious, so that
the people will consider it disgraceful. Thereafter, the
ruler will universally enforce his laws. When prohibitions
and censures of private families mean no harm to the people,
and when men of merit deserving reward and culprits
deserving punishment are always known, the system of
intelligent service is accomplished.

2. The Tao of the Sovereign[4] : Organizing the Wise[5]

As one man in physical strength can not rival a multitude
of people and in wisdom can not comprehend everything,

using one man's strength and wisdom can not be compared
with using the strength and wisdom of the whole state.
Therefore, who with his own strength and wisdom defies
people, will be overcome in all things. If he by chance hits
the object, he will have already over-worked himself; if he
misses the object, he will be held responsible[6] for the
mistake.

The inferior ruler exerts his own ability; the average ruler
exerts people's physical strength; and the superior ruler
exerts people's wisdom. For this reason, in case of emergency
he gathers the wise men, listens to each one, and calls a
conference. If he does not listen to each one, consequent
results will be contrary to antecedent words. If consequent
results are contrary to antecedent words, there will be no
distinction[7] between the stupid and the wise. If the ruler
does not call a conference, there will be hesitation and no
decision. Without decision, everything will come to a standstill.
If the ruler adopts one of the counsels himself, he will
have no fear of falling into the trap of rapacious people.
Therefore, he should let everybody utter his opinions. After
opinions are settled, he should hold them responsible[8] for
equivalent results. For this purpose, on the day that opinions
are uttered, he should make written memoranda. Thus, the
organizer of wise men verifies their words after starting the
tasks; the organizer of able men estimates[9] their merits after
seeing their works. Success and failure leave evidence,
which reward and punishment follow respectively. If tasks

are successfully accomplished, the ruler harvests their fruits;
if they fail, the ministers face criminal charges.

Who rules over men, never busies himself with the
identification of tallies, not to mention laborious work.
Nor does he busy himself in case of[10] emergency at hand,
still less with distant affairs. Therefore, self-exhaustion is
not the right policy in personnel administration. The ruler
does not take advice from the same source. If ministers unify
their words, the ruler will reprimand them. If he makes
people exert their respective abilities, he will become godlike.
If he is godlike, the inferiors will exert their wisdom. If every
inferior exerts his wisdom[11] the ministers will not take
advantage of the ruler and the Tao of the sovereign will be
accomplished.

3. Preventing the Rise of Commotions[12]

Who knows ruler and minister differ in interest, will
become supreme. Who regards the difference[13] as identity,
will be intimidated. Who administers the state affairs in
common with his ministers, will be killed. Therefore, the
intelligent sovereign will scrutinize the distinctions between
public and private interests and the relative positions of
benefit and harm, so that wicked men will find no chance
to act.

There are six kinds of creators of commotions, namely,
dowagers, concubines, bastards, brothers, chief vassals, and
celebrities for wisdom. If magistrates are appointed and

ministers bear responsibilities in accordance with law, the
sovereign's mother will not dare any kind of rampancy. If
propriety and bestowal have different grades, concubines
can not speculate whether their sons might replace the heir
apparent. If the supreme position tolerates no rivalry,
bastards cannot dispute with legitimate sons. If authority
and position[14] are not shaken, royal brothers cannot trespass
on the ruler's power. If subordinate officials are not from the
same clan, chief vassals can not delude the ruler. If prohibitions
and rewards are always enforced, celebrities for
wisdom cannot create any commotion. . . .[15]

Ministers have two resorts, called outer and inner. The
outer is said to be "the feared"; the inner, "the loved".
What is requested by the feared is granted; what is suggested
by the loved, is followed. Thus, the feared and the loved
are what the rapacious ministers appeal to. If officials
recommended by foreign states are cross-examined[16] and
censured for their continuous development of personal friendships
and acceptance of bribes from abroad, they will
not count on the outer resort. If ranks and bounties follow
meritorious services, and if those who make request on
behalf of their friends and relatives are equally implicated in
the practice of favouritism, nobody will count on the inner
resort. If both the outer and the inner resorts are not relied
on, culprits outside and inside[17] the court will be suppressed.

Officials who advance according to the regular order till
they reach posts of great responsibilities, are wise. Those

whose posts are high and responsibilities are great, should be
held under surveillance by three means of control, namely,
"taking hostages"[18] , "holding securities"[19] , and "finding
sureties"[20] . Relatives, wives and sons can be taken as
hostages; ranks and bounties can be held as securities; and
the "three units and basic fives" that are implicated[21] in
any of the members' illegal acts, can be found as sureties.
Worthies refrain from evils for fear of "hostage-taking";
greedy people are transformed by the measure of "security-holding";
and culprits are harassed by the measure of
"surety-using". If the superior does not exercise these
means of control, the inferiors will dare to infringe upon his
authority[22] . If small culprits are not eliminated, he will have
to censure great culprits. When censuring[23] culprits, if name
and fact correspond to each other, he should immediately
enforce the censure. If their life is detrimental to the state
affairs and their death penalty is harmful to the ruler's name,
then he should poison them through drinking or eating,
otherwise send them into the hands of their enemies. This
is said to "eliminate invisible culprits"[24] . Harbouring[25]
culprits is due[26] to the practice of misrepresentation. The
practice of misrepresentation is due to the contempt for the
law. If visible merits are always rewarded and disclosed
crimes are punished, the practice of misrepresentation will
stop. Him who gives no opinion of right or wrong, presents
unreasonable persuasions and remonstrations, and shows
contempt for the law, the ruler should not take into service.

Uncles, cousins, or worthy and excellent ministers, living
in exile, are said to be "roaming calamities"[27] . Their menace
comes from their provision of neighbouring enemies with
numerous opportunities. Eunuchs and courtiers are said to
be "profligate rebels".[28] Their menace comes from their ill
will caused by irritation and suspicion. To conceal anger,
shelter criminals, and harbour them, is said to "increase
commotions"[29] . The menace lies in the rise of men expecting
godsends and making arbitrary promotions. To delegate
equal authority to two chief vassals and maintain the balance
of power between them without partiality, is said to "nourish
calamities"[30] . The menace lies in the precipitation of family
quarrels[31] , intimidations, and regicides. To be careless and
not to keep oneself godlike, is called to "lose prestige"[32] .
Its menace lies in the rise of such treason as regicide by
poisoning. These five are menaces, which, if the lord of men
ignores them, will eventually precipitate such disasters as
intimidation and regicide. If matters of dismissal and appointment
originate from inside, then there will be order; if from

outside[33] , then chaos. Therefore, the intelligent sovereign
would estimate meritorious services inside the court and
harvest profits from abroad. Consequently, his state is always
orderly; his enemies, always chaotic. The reason for chaos
is that unduly hated ministers would create such outer
commotions by means of delusion, and unduly loved
vassals would create such inner commotions by means of
poisoning.

4. Enforcing the System of Three Units and Basic Fives[34]

The system of "three units and basic fives" means to
choose the plan held by the majority when different opinions
are subsumed under three categories, and to organize basic
groups of five families and implicate all the members of each
group in any member's misconduct. Thus, the comparison
of different opinions always differentiates the majority and
the minority from each other; the organization of groups of
five families always holds members of the same group jointly
responsible[35] . If not differentiated, they would profane the
superior's authority; if not held responsible, they would
co-operate in evil doings.[36] Therefore, the ruler should differentiate
them when their number is still small and can be easily
known. When angry, he should censure only the culprits
but not their relatives. His position of observing deeds and
heeding speeches is demonstrated by his punishing[37] all clique

members, rewarding non-partisans[38] , censuring women[39]
interviewers, and convicting their adherents. Regarding the
diverse opinions uttered simultaneously, he should estimate
them in the light of their backgrounds, scrutinize them with
the principles of heaven, verify them by the course of affairs,
and compare them with the sentiments of mankind. If these
four demonstrations coincide with one another, then the ruler
may proceed to observe deeds.

Compare different words and thereby know the true one.
Change[40] the perspectives and thereby detect[41] the choice
abode. Stick to your own view and thereby hold your
extraordinary[42] standpoint. Unify the system of personnel
administration and thereby warn the courtiers.[43] Dignify your
words and thereby scare distant officials. Cite the past facts
and thereby check the antecedent words. Keep detectives
near by the officials and thereby know their inner conditions.
Send detectives[44] afar and thereby know outer affairs.
Hold to your clear knowledge and thereby inquire into
obscure objects. Give ministers false encouragements and
thereby extirpate their attempts to infringe on the ruler's
rights. Invert your words and thereby try out the suspects.
Use contradictory arguments[45] and thereby find out the
invisible culprits. Establish the system of espionage[46] and

thereby rectify the fraudulent[47] people. Make appointments
and dismissals and thereby observe the reactions of wicked
officials. Speak explicitly and thereby persuade people to
avoid faults. Humbly follow others' speeches and thereby
discriminate between earnest men and flatterers. Get information
from everybody and know things you have not yet
seen. Create quarrels among adherents and partisans
and thereby disperse them. Explore the depths of one culprit
and thereby warn the mind of the many. Divulge false ideas
and thereby make the inferiors think matters over.

In the case of similarities and resemblances, identify their
common points. When stating anybody's faults, grasp the
causes, know the due penalties,[48] and thereby justify[49] the
exercise of your authority. Send out spies in secret to inspect
the enemy states from time to time and thereby find their signs
of decay. Gradually change envoys sent abroad and thereby
break up their secret communications and private friendships
with foreign states. Put every subordinate under surveillance
by his immediate principal. Thus, ministers discipline their
vassals; vassals discipline their dependents; soldiers and
officials discipline their troops; envoys discipline their
deputies; prefects discipline their subordinates; courtiers
discipline their attendants; and queens and concubines
discipline their court maids. Such is said to be "the systematic
thorough way"[50] .

If words are divulged and affairs leak out, then no statecraft
will function at all.

5. Devotion to Secrecy[51]

The lord of men has the duty of devoting his attention to
secrecy. For this reason, when his delight is revealed, his
conduct will be slighted;[52] when his anger is revealed, his
prestige will fall to the ground. The words of the intelligent
sovereign, therefore, are blockaded in such wise that they
are not communicable outwards and are kept in such secrecy
that they are unknowable. Therefore, to find ten culprits
with the wisdom of one person is an inferior way, to find one
culprit through the mutual watch of ten persons is a superior
way.[53] As the intelligent sovereign takes both the superior
and the inferior ways, no culprit is ever missed. Members of
the same group of five families, of the same village,[54] and of
the same county,[55] all live like close neighbours. Who
denounces anybody else's fault, is rewarded; who misses[56]
anybody else's fault, is censured. The same is true of the
superior towards the inferior and of the inferior towards the
superior. Accordingly, superior and inferior, high and low,
warn each other to obey the law, and teach each other to
secure profits.[57] By nature everybody wants to live in fact and
in reputation. So does the ruler want both the name of being
worthy and intelligent and the fact of rewarding and punishing

people. When fame and fact are equally complete, he will
certainly be known as lucky and good.

6. Comparing Different Speeches[58]

If speeches heard from inferiors are not compared, the
superior will find no reason to call the inferiors to account.
If speeches are not held responsible for their utility, heretical
theories will bewilder the superior. A word is such that people
believe in it because its upholders are numerous. An unreal
thing, if its existence is asserted by ten men, is still subject to
doubt; if its existence is asserted by one hundred men, its
reality becomes probable; and if its existence is asserted by
one thousand men, it becomes undoubtable. Again, if spoken
about by stammerers, it is susceptible to doubt; if spoken
about by eloquent persons, it becomes believable. Wicked
men, when violating their superior, rely on the support of the
many for their background, display their eloquence by
quoting forced analogies so as to embellish their selfish acts.
If the lord of men shows no anger at them but expects to
compare and identify their deeds with their words, by force
of circumstances his inferiors will be benefited.

The sovereign upholding the true path, when heeding
words, holds them accountable for their utility, and charges
them with their functions. From the requirement of successful
functions there issue matters of reward and punishment.
Therefore, whoever displays useless eloquence, is never kept
in the court; whoever is appointed to office, if known to be
unable to perform his duties, is removed from his post;[59] and

whoever talks big and exaggerates everything, is driven to his
wits' end by the disappointing outcome. In consequence,
there will be disclosed wickednesses, wherefore the superior
will be in a position to reprimand the culprits. Any word
that does not truly materialize with no extraneous hindrance,
is a fraud. Of fraud the speaker should then be convicted.
In other words, every word has its retribution; every theory
has its responsibility for utility. Consequently, the words of
rapacious ministers' adherents and partisans will not go into
the superior's ear.

According to the right way of heeding suggestions in
general, the ruler requires the minister to speak loyally to
him about any culprit, and to cite wide illustrations of every
suggestion presented to him for adoption.[60] If the sovereign
is not wise, culprits will gain the advantage. Yet according
to the intelligent sovereign's way, the ruler, when pleased by
any counsellor, would examine the accepted counsel in detail;
when angered by any counsellor, he would reconsider the
whole contentions for the argument, and profane his judgment
till his feelings have become normal in order that he may
thereby find sufficient reason to award the counsellor honour
or disgrace and determine whether his motive is public justice
or private greediness.

Ministers usually present as many counsels as possible to
display their wisdom and let the ruler choose one out of them,
so that they can avoid responsibilities. Therefore, when
numerous counsels appear simultaneously, only the fallen ruler
would heed them. As for the intelligent sovereign, he would
admit no alternative word in addition to the original, but

enact the system of future testimony by making[61] the consequent
result testify the antecedent project so as to ascertain
the falsity or sincerity[62] of the counsellor. The way of the
intelligent sovereign never tolerates two different counsels by
one minister, but restricts one person to one counsel at one
time, allows nobody to act at random, and always synthesizes
the results of comparison. Therefore, the culprits find no
way to advance.

7. Confiding in the Law[63]

Officials are over-powerful because there are no effective
laws. Laws stop functioning because the superior is stupid.
If the superior is stupid and upholds no rule, the officials will
act at random. As the officials act at random, their salaries
will be surpassed by no precedent. If their salaries are
surpassed by no predecessor, taxes will be increased. As
taxes are increased, they will become wealthy. The wealth
and powerfulness of the officials eventually breed chaos.[64]

Under the intelligent sovereign's Tao, only trustworthy
men are taken into service, only dutiful officials are praised,
and only men of merit are rewarded. When anybody
recommends anybody else to the sovereign, if his word
materializes truly and thereby delights the ruler, then both
he and the official should be equally benefited; if his word
does not truly materialize and thereby angers the ruler, then
both he and that official should be equally punished. If so,
ministers will not dare grant their uncles and cousins personal
favours, but will recommend their enemies who have the

required abilities. Their influences are sufficient to enforce
the law, their allowances are sufficient to perform their duties,
and their self-seeking activities find no room to grow in.
In consequence, the people will work hard and lessen the
officials' burden.

Whoever is entrusted with public affairs, should not be
over-powerful. Only to his rank should the ruler ascribe his
honour. Whoever holds office should not be self-seeking.
Only to his bounty should the ruler limit his income. In
consequence, the people will honour ranks and esteem
bounties. Thus, rank and bounty will become means of
reward. When the people esteem these means of reward, the
state will be in good order.

If norms are intricate, it is because terms are mistaken. If
prizes and praises are not adequate, the people will hang in
suspense. Now that the people hold both fame and prizes in
equal esteem, if the rewarded are slandered, reward will not
be fit to encourage people; if the punished are admired, then
punishment will not be fit to suppress culprits. It is the
intelligent sovereign's way that rewards always result from
contributions to public benefit and that fame always originates
in services to the superior. If reward and fame follow the
same track and slander and censure proceed in parallel, the
people will find nothing more glorious than to be rewarded[65]

and the receivers of heavy penalties will always incur bad
names. In consequence, the people will fear punishment, that
is, means of prohibition. If the people fear means of prohibition,
the state will be in good order.

8. Upholding the Sovereign's Dignity[66]

If the sovereign manifests chivalrous conduct, his dignity
will be shaken. If he follows theories of compassion and
benevolence, legal institutions will crumble. On account of
such institutions the people revere the superior; by virtue
of his position the superior holds down the inferior. Therefore,
if inferiors act at random, unscrupulously violate the
law, and honour the custom of slighting the ruler, then the
sovereign's dignity will be shaken. The people on account
of the law hesitate to violate the superior; the superior on
account of the law suppresses the sentiments of compassion
and benevolence. Thus, the inferiors appreciate favours and
charities and strive for a government with bribes and pay.[67]
For this reason, laws and orders are failing in their aim.
Private actions are honoured, whereby the sovereign's dignity
is shaken. Bribes and pay are used, whereby the efficacy of
laws and orders[68] is doubted. If such vices are tolerated, the
government will be disturbed; if not, the sovereign will be
slandered. In the long run, the ruler's status will be despised
and the regulations for the officials will be confused. Such
is called "a state without constant authority"[69] .

Under the Tao of the intelligent sovereign, no minister is
allowed to practise chivalry and give honours nor is he
allowed to accomplish any merit for his family's sake.
Achievement and reputation are always based on the initiative
of the regulations of the officials. What is against law,
though it may involve difficulties, cannot be celebrated.
In consequence, the people will find no reason to make their
reputation. Now, to establish laws and regulations is to
unify the people; to make reward and punishment faithful
is to exert their abilities; and to make slander and honours
clear is to encourage good and discourage evil. Fame and
titles, rewards and punishments, laws and orders, are three
pairs[70] of statecraft. . . .[71] Therefore, any action by the chief
vassals will aim to honour the ruler; any service by the
hundred surnames will aim to benefit the superior. Such is
called "a state on the true path"[72] .