University of Virginia Library

Chapter XLVI

SIX CONTRARIETIES[1]

Who fears death and shuns difficulty, is the type of citizen
who would surrender or retreat, but the world reveres him by
calling him "a life-valuing gentleman". Who studies the
ways of the early kings and propounds theories of his own,
is the type of citizen that would neglect the law, but the world
reveres him by calling him "a cultured and learned gentleman".
Who idles his time away and obtains big awards, is
the type of citizen who would live on charities, but the world
reveres him by calling him "a talented gentleman". Who
twists his speeches and pretends to erudition, is the fraudulent
and deceitful type of citizen, but the world reveres him by
calling him "an eloquent and intelligent gentleman". Who
brandishes his sword and attacks and kills, is the violent and
savage type of citizen, but the world reveres him by calling
him "a hardy and courageous gentleman". Who saves thieves
and hides culprits, is the type of citizen that deserves the
death penalty, but the world reveres him by calling him "a
chivalrous and honourable gentleman". These six types of
citizens are what the world praises.

Who would venture risks and die in the cause of loyalty,
is the type of citizen that chooses death before infidelity, but
the world despises him by calling him "a planless subject".
Who learns little but obeys orders, is the law-abiding type of

citizen, but the world despises him by calling him "a naive
and rustic subject". Who works hard and earns his livelihood,
is the productive type of citizen, but the world despises him
by calling him "a small-talented subject". Who is frank,
generous, pure, and genuine, is the right and good type of
citizen, but the world despises him by calling him "a foolish
and silly subject". Who esteems commands and reveres
public affairs, is the superior-respecting type of citizen, but
the world despises him by calling him "a cowardly and fainthearted
subject". Who suppresses thieves and oppresses
culprits, is the superior-obeying type of citizen, but the world
despises him by calling him "a flattering and slanderous
subject". These six types of citizens are what the world
blames.

Thus, the wicked, fraudulent, and useless citizens include
six types, but the world praises them in those manners; so
do the tilling, fighting, and useful citizens include six types,
but the world blames them in these manners. These are
called "six contrarieties".

If the hemp-clothed commoners in accordance with their
private interests praise people, and if the lord of this age
believing in bubble reputations respects them, then whoever
is respected, will be accorded profits. If the hundred surnames
on account of private feud with them slander them, and
if the lord of this age, as misled by the beaten track of
men, despises them, then whoever is despised, will suffer
damage. Therefore, fame and rewards will go to selfish,
vicious citizens deserving punishment; while blame and
damages will befall public-spirited, upright gentlemen
deserving reward. If so, then to strive for the wealth and
strength of the state is impossible.

The ancients had a proverb saying: "To govern the
people is like washing one's head. Though there are falling
hairs, the washing must needs be done." Whoever regrets
the waste of the falling hairs and forgets the gain of the
growing hairs, does not know the doctrine of expediency.[2]

Indeed, opening boils causes pain; taking drugs causes
bitter taste. Yet, if boils are not opened on account of pain
and drugs not taken on account of bitterness, the person will
not live and the disease will not stop.

Now the relationship between superior and inferior
involves no affection of father and son, if anyone wishes to
rule the inferiors by practising righteousness, the relationship
will certainly have cracks. Besides, parents in relation
to children, when males are born, congratulate each other,
and, when females are born, lessen[3] the care of them. Equally
coming out from the bosoms and lapels of the parents, why
should boys receive congratulations while girls are ill-treated?
Because parents consider their future conveniences
and calculate their permanent benefits. Thus, even parents in
relation to children use the calculating mind in treating them,
how much more should those who have no affection of
parent and child?

The learned men of to-day, on counselling the lord of men,
all persuade him to discard the profit-seeking mind and follow
the way of mutual love. Thereby they demand more from
the lord of men than from parents. Such is an immature view
of human relationships: it is both deceitful and fallacious.

Naturally the enlightened sovereign would not accept it. The
sage, in governing the people, deliberates upon laws and
prohibitions. When laws and prohibitions are clear and
manifest, all officials will be in good order.[4] He makes reward
and punishment definite. When reward and punishment are
never unjust, the people will attend to public duties. If the
people attend to public duties and officials are in good order,[5]
then the state will become rich; if the state is rich, then the
army will become strong. In consequence, hegemony will
be attained. The enterprise of the Hegemonic Ruler is the
highest goal of the lord of men. With this highest goal in
view the lord of men attends to governmental affairs. Therefore,
the officials he appoints to office must have the required
abilities, and the rewards and punishments he enforces must
involve no selfishness but manifest public justice to gentry
and commoners. Whoever exerts his strength and risks his
life, will be able to accomplish merits and attain rank and
bounty. When rank and bounty have been attained, the
enterprise of wealth and nobility will be accomplished.
Now, wealth and nobility constitute the highest goal of the
ministers. With this highest goal in view the ministers attend
to their official duties. Therefore, they will work hard at the
peril of their lives and never resent even the exhaustion of
their energy. This amounts to the saying that if the ruler is
not benevolent and the ministers are not loyal, hegemony
cannot be attained.

Indeed, the culprits, if infallibly detected, would take
precautions; if definitely censured, they would stop. If not
detected, they would become dissolute; if not censured, they

would become active. For illustration, when cheap articles
are left at a deserted spot, even Tsêng Shan and Shih Ch`in
can be suspected of stealing them; whereas when a hundred
pieces of gold hang at the market-place, even the greatest
robber dare not take them. Even Tsêng Shan and Shih Ch`in
are liable to suspicion at a deserted spot if detection is
unlikely; if sure to be found out, the greatest robber dare
not touch the gold hanging at the market-place.

Therefore, the enlightened sovereign in governing the
state would increase custodians and intensify penalties and
make the people stop vices according to law but not owing
to their own sense of integrity. For illustration, mothers love
children twice as much as fathers do, but a father enforces
orders among children ten times better than a mother does.
Similarly, officials have no love for the people, but they
enforce orders among the people ten thousand times better
than their parents do. Parents heap up their love but their
orders come to naught; whereas officials exercise force and
the people obey them. Thus, you can easily make the choice
between severity and affection.

Furthermore, what parents desire of children is safety and
prosperity in livelihood and innocence in conduct. What the
ruler requires of his subjects, however, is to demand their
lives in case of emergency and exhaust their energy in time of
peace. Now, parents, who love their children and wish[6]
them safety and prosperity, are not listened to; whereas the
ruler, who neither loves nor benefits his subjects but demands
their death and toil, can enforce his orders. As the enlightened
sovereign knows this principle, he does not cultivate the

feeling of favour and love, but extends his influence of
authority and severity. Mothers love sons with deep love,
but most of the sons are spoilt, for their love is over-extended;
fathers show their sons less love and teach them with light
bamboos,[7] but most of the sons turn out well, for severity
is applied.

If any family of to-day, in making property, share hunger
and cold together and endure toil and pain with one another,
it would be such a family that can enjoy warm clothes and
nice food in time of warfare and famine. On the contrary,
those who help one another with clothing and food and amuse
one another with entertainments, would become such families
that give wives in marriage and set children for sale in time of
famine and during the year of drought. Thus, law as the way to
order may cause gain at first, but will give gain in the long run;
whereas benevolence as the way to order may give pleasure
for the moment, but will become fruitless in the end.
Measuring their relative weights and choosing the one for
the greatest good, the sage would adopt the legal way of
mutual perseverance and discard the benevolent[8] way of
mutual pity. The teachings of the learned men all say,
"Mitigate penalties". This is the means of inviting turmoil
and ruin. In general, the definiteness of reward and punishment
is based on encouragement and prohibition. If rewards
are liberal, it is easy to get what the superior wants; if punishments
are heavy, it is easy to forbid what the superior hates.
Indeed, whoever wants benefit, hates injury, which is the
opposite of benefit. Then how can there be no hatred for
the opposite of the wanted? Similarly, whoever wants order,

hates chaos, which is the opposite of order. For this reason,
who wants order urgently, his rewards must be liberal; who
hates chaos badly, his punishments must be heavy. Now,
those who apply light penalties are neither serious in hating
chaos nor serious in wanting order. Such people are both
tactless and helpless. Therefore, the distinction[9] between the
worthy and the unworthy, between the stupid and the
intelligent,[10] depends on whether reward and punishment are
light or heavy.

Moreover, heavy penalties are not for the sole purpose of
punishing criminals. The law of the intelligent sovereign,
in suppressing rebels, is not disciplining only those who are
being suppressed, for to discipline only the suppressed is
the same as to discipline dead men only[11] ; in penalizing
robbers, it is not disciplining only those who are being
penalized, for to discipline only the penalized is the same as to
discipline convicts only. Hence the saying: "Take seriously
one culprit's crime and suppress all wickednesses within the
boundaries." This is the way to attain order. For the heavily
punished are robbers, but the terrified and trembling are good
people. Therefore, why should those who want order doubt
the efficacy of heavy penalties?

Indeed, liberal rewards are meant not only to reward men
of merit but also to encourage the whole state. The rewarded
enjoy the benefits; those not as yet rewarded look forward
to their future accomplishment. This is to requite one man
for his merit and to encourage the whole populace within the

boundaries. Therefore, why should those who want order
doubt the efficacy of liberal rewards?

Now, those who do not know the right way to order all
say: "Heavy penalties injure the people. Light penalties can
suppress villainy. Then why should heavy penalties be
necessary?" Such speakers are really not well versed in the
principles of order. To be sure, what is stopped by heavy
penalties is not necessarily stopped by light penalties; but
what is stopped by light penalties is always stopped by heavy
penalties. For this reason, where the superior sets up heavy
penalties, there all culprits disappear. If all culprits disappear,
how can the application of heavy penalties be detrimental to
the people?

In the light of the so-called "heavy penalties", what the
culprits can gain, is slight, but what the superior inflicts, is
great. As the people never venture a big penalty for the sake
of a small gain, malefactions will eventually disappear. In
the face of the so-called "light penalties", however, what
the culprits gain, is great, but what the superior inflicts, is
slight. As the people long for the profit and ignore the slight
punishment, malefactions never will disappear. Thus, the
early sages had a proverb, saying: "Nobody stumbles
against a mountain, but everybody trips over an ant-hill."
The mountain being large, everyone takes notice[12] of it; the
ant-hill being small, everyone disregards it. Now supposing
penalties were light, people would disregard them. To let
criminals go unpunished is to drive the whole state to the
neglect of all penalties; to censure criminals properly is to
set traps for the people. Thus, light punishment is an

ant-hill to the people. For this reason, the policy[13] of light
punishment would either plunge the state into confusion or
set traps for the people. Such a policy may thus be said to
be detrimental to the people.

The learned men of to-day, one and all, cite the panegyrics
in the classics, and, without observing closely the real facts,
of the present age, say: "If the superior does not love the
people and always levies exactions and taxations, then living
expenses will become insufficient and the inferiors will hate[14]
the superior. Hence the chaos in the world." This means
that if the superior lets the people have enough money to
spend and loves them besides, then notwithstanding light
punishment order can be attained. Such a saying is not true.
Generally speaking, men incur heavy punishment[15] only after
they have had enough money. Therefore, though you let
them have enough money to spend and love them dearly,
yet light penalties cannot get them out of disorder.

Take, for example, the beloved sons of wealthy families,
who are given sufficient money to spend. Having sufficient
money to spend, they spend it freely. Spending money freely,
they indulge in extravagance. The parents, loving them so
much, cannot bear to restrict them. Not restricted, they
become self-willed. Being extravagant, they impoverish their
families. Being self-willed, they practise violence. Such is
the calamity of deep love and light penalty, even though
there is enough money to spend.

Men as a whole, while living, if they have enough money
to spend, do not use energy; if the superior's rule is weak,

they indulge in doing wrong. He who has enough money to
spend and yet still exerts himself strenuously, can be nobody
but Shên-nung. Those who cultivate their conduct though
the superior's rule is weak, can be nobody but Tsêng Shan and
Shih Ch`iu. Clearly enough, indeed, the masses of people
cannot live up to the levels of Shên-nung, Tsêng Shan and
Shih Ch`iu.

Lao Tan[16] said: "Who knows how to be content, gets no
humiliation, who knows where to stop, risks no vitiation."[17]
Indeed, who on account of vitiation and humiliation seeks
nothing other than contentment, can be nobody but Lao Tan.
Now, to think that by contenting the people order can be
attained is to assume everybody to be like Lao Tan. For
illustration, Chieh, having the dignity of the Son of Heaven,
was not content with the honour; and, having the riches
within the four seas, was not content with the treasures. The
ruler of men, though able to content the people, cannot
content all of them with the dignity of the Son of Heaven
while men like Chieh would not necessarily be content with
the dignity of the Son of Heaven. If so, even though the
ruler might attempt to content the people, how could order
be attained? Therefore, the intelligent sovereign, when
governing the state, suits his policy to the time and the affairs
so as to increase his financial resources, calculates taxes and
tributes so as to equalize the poor and the rich, extends ranks
and bounties for the people so as to exert their wisdom and
ability, enlarges penal implements so as to forbid villainy and
wickedness, and makes the people secure riches by virtue of
their own efforts, receive punishments owing to their criminal
offences, get rewards by performing meritorious services,

and never think of any gift by beneficence and favour. Such
is the course of imperial and kingly government.

If all men are asleep, no blind man will be noticed; if all
men remain silent, no mute will be detected. Awake them
and ask each one to see, or question them and ask each one to
reply. Then both the blind and the mute will be at a loss.
Likewise, unless their speeches be heeded, the tactless will not
be known; unless appointed to office, the unworthy will not
be known. Heed their speeches and seek their truth; appoint
them to office and hold them responsible for the results of
their work. Then both the tactless and the unworthy would
be at a loss. Indeed, when you want to get wrestlers but
merely listen to their own words, then you cannot distinguish
between a mediocre man and Wu Huo. Given tripods and
bowls, then both the weak and the strong come to the
fore. Similarly, official posts are the tripods and bowls to
able men. Entrusted with affairs, the stupid and the intelligent
will be differentiated. As a result, the tactless will not be used;
the unworthy will not be appointed to office.

Nowadays, those who find their words not adopted,
pretend to eloquence by twisting their sentences; those
who are not appointed to office, pretend to refinement by
disguising themselves. Beguiled by their eloquence and
deceived by their refinement, the sovereigns of this age
honour and esteem them. This is to tell the bright without
finding their sight and to tell the eloquent without finding
their replies, wherefore the blind and the mute never will be
detected. Contrary to this, the intelligent sovereign, whenever
he listens to any speech, would hold it accountable for
its utility, and when he observes any deed, would seek for its
merit. If so, empty and obsolete learning cannot be discussed
and praised and fraudulent action cannot be disguised.