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(A) Ritual specialists for whom literacy is essential

1. Phraa (monk): Number in village temple during Lent 1966 = abbot +
5 monks + 4 novices. Traditionally novices and monks who had been in
robes for some years could read fluently Tham, secular Lao and Thai
scripts. Competence in writing, however, was variable, again depending
on length of service. The learned monks, especially the abbots (chao wat),
tend to be proficient writers, today in Lao and Thai scripts, in the past
in Tham as well.

2. Achaan wat (ex-abbot or ex-monk and lay leader of Buddhist congregation):
Number in 1965 = 3. Each was an ex-monk whose literacy was
good as far as reading of Tham, Lao and Thai scripts went. Usually could
write in Lao and Thai scripts, but ability was variable and not essential.
Strictly speaking, the title is conferred only on ex-abbots.

3. Mau khwan/paahm (lay officiant at khwan (spiritual essence) rites):
Number in 1966 = 2 + 1 occasional practitioner. Khwan rites are typically
threshold rites and rites of passage, performed especially at birth, marriage,
ordination and pregnancy. (They also extend into rice cultivation, and
rites of affliction.) The officiant was invariably an ex-monk. Reading
ability of Tham and Lao scripts essential; usually could write Lao and
Thai scripts, but not necessarily Tham.

4. Mau ya (physician): Number in 1966 = 1. Attainments similar to
mau khwan (3). Ability to read medical and ritual texts in Tham and
Lao scripts essential. Indigenous medicine includes ritual frills and
techniques of ritual healing as supplement to herbal and other medicines
to cure organic illnesses.

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5. Mau du (astrologer): Number in 1966 = 3, possibly more. Usually
has some qualifications as 3 and 4 above. Should be able to read charts
and make simple calculations.