University of Virginia Library

II

The refined evidence required for distinguishing same-face fonts can be divided into internal and external categories depending on whether a potential discriminant is imported from a dissimilar face, or whether it is a variation within the stylistic parameters of the face. In both categories, a discriminant is two-dimensional, and consists of the qualitative stylistic difference combined with the quantitative proportion of differing letters in a sort. External discriminants are easily detected because of the clash in the stylistic features noted in earlier discussion, and are imported into a font through processes of fouling, replenishment, and large-scale mixing of two fonts. The proportion of wrong-face letters in a sort usually indicates which process is involved: a high proportion of wrong-face letters in a given sort suggests a high probability of replenishment, and conversely, a small, or better yet, almost infinitesimal proportion suggests that fouling is responsible. Mixing introduces significant proportions of wrong-face or stylistically different letters into most sorts of a font. It is impossible to state fixed proportions or rules that apply to all fonts.

The distinction between replenishment and fouling is based upon the assumption that replenishment is responsible for the presence of abnormal (wrong-face or miscast) letters in significant quantities in a population which retains a varying proportion of normal letters in the depleted sorts. The converse is taken to indicate fouling since the overwhelming majority of letters in a sort consists of normal letters. The distinction can have serious practical implications: the former come from outside the shop and merely provide an additional discriminant in a single font; however, the latter are from within the shop, and indicate that the font belongs to a printer with two or more fonts. In turn, this permits the narrowing of the field of candidates to such printers and provides an additional criteria to guide the search for the printer of a section of a shared book. The correct candidate will use two fonts that either could produce or actually do exhibit an appropriate degree of mutual cross-contamination.[10] The replenishment process produced four categories of external wrong-face or miscast capitals, ligatures and lower-case letters. Although many miscast letters are in the correct-face and hence internal discriminants in a technical sense, in most instances they present such a striking contrast to properly formed letters that they warrant classification as external discriminants. As a general rule, potential discriminants must be checked against the same letters in other printers' fonts to verify that they are abnormal for the typeface. The on-going process of piecemeal replenishment usually will have produced quantitative differences in the proportions of replenished abnormal and original letters in same-face fonts.

Wrong-face capitals are the most easily detected external discriminants and typically are produced by replenishment of a Y-font with S-face capitals.

The latter are of a slightly larger design scale but are cast on roughly the same pica body size as a Y-font and thus do not distort baseline evenness.[11] Capitals exhibiting radical stylistic differences, as noted above in regard to the symmetrical Y-face and the oversized awkward S-face 'M', are difficult to overlook even when separated by pages, and other wrong-face capitals with minor stylistic differences become obvious when juxtaposed with their normal counterparts. Juxtaposition with normal tall letters and ligatures likewise calls attention to differences in height. The difficulty of locating samples of original or replenished upper-case letters varies with the kind of text: prose texts often require a cover-to-cover search to produce a few samples while verse texts usually produce a plethora of samples of a replenished upper-case letter plus remnants of the original. Thomas Purfoot's Y-font in The Fawne Q1-Q2 (STC17483-4, A-D) provides a clear example of extensive replenishment with S-face capitals and the proportions which emerge. In this alternating verse/prose text, capitals tend to be concentrated in verse pages. The awkward S-face 'M' appears in Q2 seven times before and three times immediately after the original Y-face 'M' which is first seen at B2:33 and then at C4:38 for two appearances in contrast to 26 appearances of the replenished 'M'. In higher frequency sorts, a page or two may provide an adequate number of samples. Seventeen replenished S-face 'A', for example, appear in D2v, with one conveniently juxtaposed at D3:11 to an original 'A' at D3:10. Or, the actual count may be low but revealing, as on B1v of Q1, where two replenished 'P' (B1v:1,21) appear amidst four originals (B1v:7,15,21,34), and on C1, where two replenished 'P' (C1:23) and three originals (C1:24,31) are juxtaposed; and the S-face 'S' at (Q1) B1:12,28 vs a normal 'S' at B1:20. A difficult situation occurs when the sample population is so small in one sort that replenishment must be inferred from the contextual replenishment that is obvious in other sorts. For example, an original 'R' appears at (Q1 and Q2) B1v:32, and replenished letters at (Q1) B2v:9, C2v:23, 27, and in Q2 at B2v: 8,22, C3v:22. When no sample of the original letter can be found to provide a basis for comparison, a close examination may reveal a basis for inferring replenishment from wrong-size criteria. For example, the 'N' sort in Purfoot-Y1 appears to have been totally replenished; it is taller than the Y-face 'G' (2.8mm vs 2.75mm) and equal in height to medium S-face letters such as the 'A B D F R' and it usually rides low on the baseline.[12] However, a survey of other fonts reveals that this capital 'N' is unique in that it occurs as the normal letter in both S- and Y-fonts. All other S- and Y-face capitals differ in design and size.

In some instances, proportions such as those noted in the replenishment of Purfoot-Y1 with wrong-face capitals may be deceptive. As a general rule, once the possibility of replenishment because of wrong-face capitals is entertained, the lower-case letters and ligatures must be checked to verify the correct-face and then be confirmed in another book. Nicholas Okes's S-font (1607), for example, was purchased with Guyot capitals, but the lower-case letters and ligatures are S-face except for the medium 'ſſi' and 'ffi' ligatures that somehow slipped in.[13] Similarly, the different proportions caused by fouling as opposed

to replenishment can create the impression that the latter is responsible; the cross-contamination of Eld-S and Eld-Y1 illustrates this problem. The odd method of setting the speech prefixes in Sejanus (STC14782, 1605) with a pica capital followed by small capitals (as on B3v:5,6,7,8,9,21) put a severe strain on the S-font 'S A T' sorts and occasioned relatively high-frequency appearances of Y-face letters in these sorts. Without checking the font in another book, the question of whether these wrong-face capitals intruded by replenishment or by fouling remains unresolved. The compositor(s) seems to have attempted to distribute correctly, since the proportion of Y1-capitals seems to decrease noticeably in later gatherings of Sejanus, but it must be borne in mind that the demands of the text on the affected sorts can vary significantly among gatherings. Hence, the decrease can be more apparent than real. The presence of the large proportion of a Y-face 'S' in Eld-S in Sejanus is an example. This 'S' is about 0.2mm shorter (2.65mm vs 2.85mm) than the correct-face letter with a diagonal stroke that is closer to the horizontal. The letter is found throughout the book, but primarily in speech prefixes. A check of later books reveals that, in fact, fouling was the source of the Y-face 'S'. A second potential discriminant in Eld-S is seen in the shorter asymmetrical Guyot 'S' in which the bottom counter is noticeably larger than the top and the diagonal bends tightly into the shoulder (see Low Countries, Fig. 203, p. 268). Its rate of appearance of about 3-4 per gathering in Sejanus (B1v:27, B3:24, B4:28, B4v:19) suggests fouling, and indeed, that is confirmed by its apparent failure to appear in later Eld-S books (Fearful News STC21511, 1606; A Brand Taken From the Fire STC5704, new STC5693.5, 1606) although these prose texts required fewer capitals and provide a marginally adequate sample. The appearance of this Guyot 'S' in Eld-Y1 (The Malcontent Q1 STC17479 [1604], B1v:24, C2:21, C2v:24) in mid-1604 and later in Sejanus suggests that Eld distributed a small batch of these letters into Eld-Y1 which fouled Eld-S along with the normal Y-face 'S' during the setting of Sejanus. The Guyot 'S' could have easily been purged from Eld-S because of its radically different style; however, it remained resident in Eld-Y1 where it is equally obvious. In contrast, there is clear evidence of replenishment in the 'A' sort. In addition to the foul-case Y-face 'A' (Sej, B2v:2,3,26), the sort includes a relatively new batch of S-face 'A' that print boldly with a sharply defined offset-right peak at the apex (Sej, B2v:2,11,21,27,30, B3:22,26,27); the older letters have a worn, rounded apex (B2v:7,8,13,26).

In the absence of obvious stylistic differences, variations in size provide the primary clue to the presence of wrong-face capitals. The general rule about cross-checking potential wrong-face discriminants against other fonts is especially relevant here, since early pica typefaces exhibit a normal range of variation of height in the capitals and ligatures which could be mistaken as potentially significant.[14] For example, a survey at high magnification of the capitals in Eld-Y1 could lead to the false impression that large-scale replenishment in the capitals produced a varying range in height of about 0.3mm, which, if unique to Eld-Y1, would certainly be a powerful font discriminant ('K' = 2.4mm, 'G' = 2.75mm). A similar but smaller variation in

height can be seen in the capitals and ligatures in S-fonts amounting to about 0.15mm. S-face capitals and ligatures are taller than their Y-face and Guyot counterparts. In all instances, these variations are integral to the sets of punches from which the typefaces derived. The precise measurements of height variations in originals are somewhat affected by printing effects and four centuries of paper deterioration, but can be confirmed as integral to a typeface in a unique specimen of the Claude Garamond pica seen in Stanley Morison's John Fell, the University Press and the 'Fell' Types (p. 133). The specimen is an actual impression (not a reproduction) produced by types newly cast in the Garamond pica matrices in the Fell collection and composed by hand (and so for the rest of the book). As such, it provides a most accurate record of an early typeface unaffected by damage or deterioration.[15] Variations in size were also introduced during the copying of an original letter by a particular punchcutter hired to replace damaged or worn punches. Given the striking similarity in size variations of capitals and ligatures among many pica fonts of the period, it seems likely that they all derived from just a few sets of punches. Nonetheless, height variations in capitals and ligatures can provide useful discriminants. For example, the S-face 'I' in Eld-Y1 exhibits greater height and exaggerated serifs, but it is often indistinguishable with the naked eye from heavily inked normal letters. Its presence in nearly equal proportion to the normal 'I' is probably attributable to replenishment, even though fouling is a possibility because of the heavy strain on the sort in the highly reflective Montaigne's Essayes (STC18041, 1603). However, it is also present in two other 1603 books (Nero STC12551, and A Treatise . . . Antichrist STC7120) and may have been introduced into the font previously, since the printing sequence of the three books is unclear. The S-face 'I' remains resident in the Eld-Y1 throughout its lifetime. Similarly, Eld-S was replenished with Y-face 'I' early on. Later replenishment with S-face 'I' has the effect of diminishing the proportion of the Y-face 'I' in a growing population of correct-face letters. This combination in the 'I' sort provides a discriminant between Eld-S and other S-fonts such as John Windet's and Richard Field's, which use a single size of correct-face 'I'.

Miscast capitals and ligatures occur both as original abnormalities in a font and as products of replenishment. Antecedent to their appearance in a font is the history of the set of punches or sets of matrices from which they derived. Due to the nature of the type trade in the 16th century, a somewhat limited source of new type forced a homogeneity among fonts which sometimes levels potential discriminants from miscasting. Thus, a miscast letter is not necessarily unique to a single printer's font, since many printers were probably acquiring type from the same few founders during the period. The most obvious evidence of this consists of the small 'W', which is commonly the only version of the letter found in most pica fonts, and several miscast ligatures which are found in these fonts from the 1550's onward. However, given the number of possible combinations and proportions of normal and miscast letters across the upper- and lower-cases and ligatures, composites of same-face fonts usually reveal significant discriminants. "Miscast" is used here

generically to denote several kinds of deviation from the normal that are attributable to mistakes at various stages in the type production process.[16] Technically, "miscasting" denotes a flaw in a type caused during the casting stage by the incomplete flow of molten metal into the impression of the letter in the matrix. An example of a possible miscasting occurs in Eld-S in the defective variant F2 which lacks the serif on the cross (Sej, B1:13, B1v: 14,31, B2:5, B2v:32 vs properly cast F1 at B1:29). However, a misstruck matrix could produce a similar defect: if the punch was not perfectly perpendicular to the face of the blank matrix at the instant of impact, a shallower impression would result on the periphery of the letter opposite to the direction of the punch's slant.[17] The commonness of the defective F2 suggests a misstruck matrix rather than type-caster error, since it appears also in Creede-3 (Romeo & Juliet Q2 STC22323 [1599], B3:9,23, C2:11 vs normal F1 at B2v:5,10, B3:24) and Creede-4 (The Regiment of the Church STC1827 [1606], H5:10); and in William White's mixed font (hereafter designated "-M") where most are defective (Love's Labor Lost STC22294 [1598], A2:1, A3:31,34, A4:26 vs normal F1 at A3v:32, A4:34). In contrast, the 'F' sort in (John) Windet-S and (Richard) Field-S is normal. The existence of both the normal and the defective letter suggests that at least two matrices fed the 'F' sort in these S-fonts. Other kinds of flaws can be attributed to earlier stages of type production. The cutting of a new punch could produce a difference in the width of the metal elements that form the face of the letter so that it prints bolder or finer than normal, as in the fine-printing variants E2 (LLL, B2:20,21,22) and S2 (LLL, A3:16,21, A3v:2,21,36) that appear in White's (White-M), John Danter's (Danter-M), Thomas Creede's (Creede-2, Creede-3), and other mixed fonts. Similarly, the justification of the strike by filing down its face could produce a difference in the height-to-paper relative to the other types in a font with the result that the abnormal type protrudes beyond the normal letters after pounding and lockup in the chase and prints boldly. Numerous examples of such bold-printing lower-case letters occur in the fonts surveyed here. Danter-M was replenished with several B-face lower-case letters which are not only obviously too large, but print quite boldly because of the difference in their height-to-paper (see below). Conversely, the impression of a letter in one strike might be shallower than in the strikes of the other letters; the impression could be deepened only by further striking with the same punch. However, if the set of strikes was purchased and then justified elsewhere (a quite common practice), the letters produced from the strike would print lightly because of the reduced height-to-paper. Furthermore, the variations in horizontal and vertical orientation of letters deriving from the same matrix suggest that a matrix could shift position in the mold during the opening and closing process for jettisoning a newly cast type.[18]

The most common and useful kind of abnormality consists of the misalignment of a letter in the vertical or horizontal planes so that it either leans or is positioned improperly at the baseline. For example, a strike could be taken with the punch so misaligned vertically that no amount of justifying the strike by filing its long sides could produce a matrix with a correctly

aligned letter. Letters cast in the matrix would inevitably lean. A replacement strike from the original punch could be improperly justified at the ends by a new workman to produce a slight displacement from the baseline as established in the original set of matrices. Letters cast in the replacement matrix inevitably would ride high or low at the baseline when mixed in with letters cast in the original matrix.[19] However, this kind of evidence must be approached with caution. Since moveable types are free to shift in relation to other letters, especially when set without leading (a very thin strip of lead set between lines), numerous samples should be examined before concluding that a letter is improperly positioned in the horizontal plane. At times, the displacement is so exaggerated and pervasive that there can be no doubt. For example, the 'G' found in Eld-S in Sejanus and in other S-fonts is so low (0.25mm) that the baseline cuts through the white space inside the letter ("counter"). This low-rider 'G' appears foul-case in Eld-Y1 as a two dimensional discriminant: both wrong-face and miscast. The miscast E3 in Creede-3 (R&J Q2, A4:19, B1:4, B2v:18,21, C2:35) rides low (0.25mm) and leans right to the point that the adjacent letter sits on the tip of the bottom serif and is easily distinguished from the normal erect letters (B2:37, B2v:37, C1:2, D4: 14, D4v:14,22). The same miscasting appears in White-M (LLL, A3v:28) along with the fine-printing erect E2 noted above (B2:20,21,22). In contrast, all of the 'E' sort is erect in Eld-S and Windet-S. Creede-4 has about equal proportions of a normal erect E1 and an oversized E4 (3.05mm high) (Regiment STC1827, B1v:29) which positions correctly on the base-line. Variant D2 which leans left is quite common to S-fonts but occurs in differing proportions. It is the only version in Eld-S (Sej, B3:4,14,25) and Creede-4, seems to be the only S-face 'D' in White-M (LLL, A4:3, B1:29,36, B1v:10,11), and seems slightly in the majority in Creede-3 (R&J Q2, leaning: A3v:19,21, B1v: 20, D3:16; normal D1: A3v:34, B1v:29, C3v:8, D3v:3). Normal D1 is exclusive in (Simon) Stafford-EF. A fairly uncommon miscast T2, in which the thin cross slants downward to the right, seems in the majority in White-M (LLL, A2:10,12,13,24,25), while the sort in Creede-3 is evenly distributed between the normal T1 (R&J Q2, A3v:1,2,3, A4v:5,6) and slanted cross T2 (A4v:14, 20,29); it is infrequent in (Valentine) Simmes-S (Richard III Q1 STC22314 [1597], E4v:19,26), but dominates Danter-M (Titus Andronicus STC22328 [1594], C1:22) along with the foul-case 68mm 'T' (C1:16), and does not appear in Eld-S, Windet-S, Field-S or Creede-4.

The divergence in same-face fonts caused by acquisition and replenishment from different sources at different times is suggested by the combinations which occur. Eld's low-rider 'G' appears along with low-rider 'B C F K L M P R T', but correctly aligned 'I', in Creede-4 (Antichrist, STC7120, [2]H—M; Monsieur d'Olive STC4983 [1606], A, B(i)). Some of these letters appear in Eld-S, but are in closer alignment with normal letters, suggesting that the two original fonts were purchased from separate foundries, one of which used several misjustified replacement matrices to produce Creede-4. Eld probably replenished from this foundry, but the misjustified matrices were, by chance, more closely aligned to the matrices used by the first founder.

On the other hand, the 'G' is normal in White-M (LLL) and Creede-3 (R&J Q2). Windet-S and Field-S, in contrast, use all non-deviant capitals, suggesting a single uniformly justified set of matrices at one foundry. It is frequently impossible to determine whether a letter is miscast although repeated examination creates an impression of a distinct abnormality. A small portion of White's 'C' sort rides low (0.2mm) (LLL, A3v:26, A2v:29, A2:8) while most are normally positioned (the Creede-3 sort is similar), but the effect is not so pronounced as to imply miscasting, since the baseline is normally distorted in this mixed font. Yet the fact that some print this way is a potential discriminant, since all of Eld's are aligned correctly. Moreover, the perceived difference may simply result from replenishment, since new clean-printing letters are bound to look different than old worn versions; the resulting layers of newness also are a potential discriminant.[20]

In addition to misalignment in the vertical and horizontal planes, the two letters forming a poorly cut ligature can be improperly oriented with respect to each other. These are especially prevalent in S-fonts, where variants occur in which one letter leans and produces a narrower gap between the letters at the baseline, or one letter is above the baseline. The skewed letters of ligatures make clear the difficulty of cutting a punch with perfectly aligned letters.[21] S-fonts seem to vary in the number of types available in their ligature sorts. Eld-S, Simmes-S, Field-S and Creede-4 almost exclusively set an 'ſſ' or 'ſſi', while Windet-S frequently resorts to alternate settings with combinations of 's', tall-ſ, 'ſi', and 'i'. However, the 'ſſi', 'ſ ſi' and 'ſſl' ligatures occur at low-frequency so that locating one in a text is difficult at times. But the miscast 'ſt' with the leaning 't' is so pervasive in S-fonts that the discriminating factor usually is the proportion between new, bold-printing (ſt2) and older-appearing ligatures (ſt1). In Sejanus, two old letters can be seen at C1:11,12 among a dozen new samples. Damage usually consists of a flattening or distortion of the curve of the shoulder of the 'ſ' and can be seen in the "new" letters at C1:3,30. In contrast, five new letters (LLL, A4v:18,30, B1:4, 10,34) are found among nine damaged in White-M, and the two are about equal in Simmes-S (Mal Q3, C2:7,8). A crisper, deeper impression in the matrix(ces) probably accounts for the difference in weight and distinctness of the two 'ſt', as must be the case with the 'ſſ' ligature. Heavy inking on the inside of the left 'ſ' seems responsible for a bold apparent variant ſſ2 with the left 'f' curving inward at the baseline (White-M, Titus, B4:12). The left shoulder often prints as an oblique straight-line. The consistent inking effect suggests a variant punch although there is no measurable difference. Some erect, normal appearing ſſ1 can be found in most S-fonts (Eld-S, Sej, D1:28; Field-S, Arte of Poesie STC20519 [1589], D4:25,26,35) along with the apparent variant (Sej, C3v:31; Arte, D4:27). A single punch doubtlessly produced all these 'ſſ' ligatures. The 'ſh' appears in S-fonts in a normal version ſh1 along with two common miscastings. In ſh2, the 'ſ' and ascender of the 'h' lean right in varying degrees, while the right stem of the 'h' is erect; the foot of the 'ſ' is above the baseline (0.15mm) while the feet of the 'h' are generally level at the baseline; the body of the type frequently seems to lean right. In ſh3, the

'ſ' and right stem of the 'h' are erect, the ascender of the 'h' slants to the right, and all three feet are even on the baseline.[22] The frequent juxtaposition of the leaning ligatures, particularly the 'ſh', with round letters (o e) in combination with inking of the base-serifs often creates an optical illusion that the left and the right foot ride respectively above and below the base line, although at high magnification this effect can be discounted. It is worth noting that Braddock-Y1 was replenished with a miscasting similar to ſh2, quite possibly the same (MND Q1, D1v:26), which perhaps was part of the purchase that introduced the S-face 'ſt' noted below.

The letters of variant ff1 are correctly aligned (spaced 1.15mm), and the long right shoulder terminates horizontally in a small pear and extends 1.15-1.2mm beyond the right 'f'; the right shoulder of miscut variant ff2 curves into a sharp tip and extends 1.05mm beyond the ascender; the broadly curved left shoulder separates the misaligned letters 1.2-1.25mm (at 0.4mm above the x-line) which then converge to a spacing of 1.1-1.15mm at the baseline; the left 'f' is slightly higher in most. Misjustified matrices contribute low-riding miscastings of both variants (ff1: Danter-M, Coblers Prophesies STC 25781 [1594], C1:7, C4v:32; LLL, B2v:11, C2:27, C3:32. ff2: LLL, B2v:11, C2:27, C3:32) as well as correctly aligned ligatures (ff1: Sej, C3:20, C3v:4; Creede-1, Selimus STC 12310a [1594], D1:32 "off"). ff2: Sej, C1v:22; Simmes-S, R3, B3:35, D2v:31; Creede-2, Selimus, D2:32 'effeminate"). Both variants that appear in the 'fl' sort are miscut with the letters converging toward the baseline. The two are easily distinguished by height (fl1: 2.75-2.85mm, see Sej, B4:24, C4:17. fl2: 2.9-3.05mm, see R3, E3v:35, E4:6; Read-S, Cynthia's Revels, STC14733 [1601], B3v:6,14,30,35); the misalignment is less pronounced in fl1 (above x-line: 1.2mm, baseline: 1.15mm) than in fl2 (1.25mm, 1.1-1.15mm). A third variant with correctly aligned letters appears in Creede-1 and White-M although it may not belong to the S-face set of punches (fl3: 2.7-2.8mm high, 1.15-1.2mm wide; see Selimus, C4v:23 "flight", C4v:24 "flies"; LLL, G3:7). The right-leaning 'i' of miscast variant fi2 (2.85-2.9mm high) produces a width of 1.2mm at the upslanting cross and 1.05 mm at the baseline; the 'i' often appears to ride high and the ligature frequently leans right (Danter-M, Coblers, C3:5; White-M, LLL, A4:2, Fools, D1v:20).

An 'ſt' with right-leaning 't' (ſt1) is common in Y-fonts, although the lean is not so pronounced as in the S-face ligature since the portion of the 't' below the cross is closer to the vertical. Short-Y contains a large proportion of the ligature in which the deviation is so slight that the 't' appears erect (R3, H2:26,29,33), although the shoulder over-extends the 't' so that the top-half of the 't' leans right (ſt1b). Eld-Y1 includes a small proportion of this version (Mal Q2, C4:20,21, C4v:7). A second version in which both letters lean right and the 't' rides high (ſt2) is also common to Y-fonts, appearing in low proportion in Short-Y (R3, H2:13,37) and Eld-Y1, but in the majority in Braddock-Y1 (MND Q1, D3:1,15,27,31); the latter was replenished with a significant number of S-face 'ſt' which is quite obvious because of size (MND Q1, D3v:6,21, F3v:28,29). The 'ſt' sort in Braddock-Y2 is split evenly between the leaning 't' (ſt2) (Antichrist STC7120, [1]B3v:1,11,18) and partially erect

't' (ſt1b) ([1]B3v:27,32), both of which equal the 'G' in height. Neither the Garamond nor Guyot 'ſt' with the tall 't' and right-angle shoulder junction seem to appear in Y-fonts. Common miscastings occur in two other ligatures. A miscast ſi2 with right-leaning 'ſ' (or left-leaning 'i') is the majority variant in Eld-Y1 (Mal Q1-2, E2:5 "pleasingly" vs normal ſi1 E2:4 "sinne"), in the minority in Purfoot-Y, almost exclusive in Field-Y (Observations in the Arte of English Poesie STC4543 [1602], A7:8 "sillables" vs ſi1 A7:7 "consisting") but less frequent in Braddock-Y1 (MND, D1v:17) and -Y2, and rare in Short-Y. A miscast fi2 with a high-riding 'i' and the cross accordingly slanted upward likewise is almost exclusive in Field-Y (Observations, B1:6,8), of about equal proportions in Eld-Y1 (Mal Q1-2, E3:5) with the normal version (Mal Q1-2, E2:3,25), and uncommon in Braddock-Y1 and Short-Y.

Although samples of most lower-case letters are available in large quantities in a text, their value as discriminants is somewhat undercut by their size and penchant for sustaining damage and distortion through extended usage. Generally, wrong-face upper-case letters are obvious to the naked eye because of stylistic differences, but identifying miscast and wrong-size lowercase pica letters is difficult if not impossible except at high magnification, since the measurable differences often amount to less than 0.1mm. Inking effects easily obscure this magnitude of variation, especially when new types ink more boldly. Read-S provides examples of replenishment with obvious Y-face letters in several sorts. Graceful Y-face 'a' variants distinguished by the shoulder, which extends to the left of the bowl, appear in varying proportions, accounting on some pages for about 30% of the total (Revels, B3v), and in lower proportions on others such as I2, where six (I2:4,20,23,24,26,31) are found among 72 older S-face 'a', reflecting the random recurrence of low-level replenished letters in page-length textual units. The Y-face 'k' variants and squat S-face k2 (junction height: 0.75mm) appear in roughly equal proportions, as on B3v where the ratio is 5:6, and both are in good condition, suggesting proximate replenishment without concern for stylistic integrity. Some pages show a few older S-face k1 (junction height: 0.65mm) (E1v:9,14) with worn serifs. The ratio of Y- and S-face 'p' is about 1:2 (C2v, 6:11). The fact that wrong-face letters occur in just a few lower-case sorts is a useful discriminant between Read-S and mixed fonts such as Danter-M and White-M, which exhibit variants in most sorts. The frequent skewing of type also is a pivotal factor in lessening the value of lower-case letters as discriminants and increases the need to cross-check against other fonts in order to establish whether a given letter is actually abnormal. A survey of many pages of Revels such as B3v, for example, reveals that a vertical shifting of type during the locking-up of the forme skewed many lines and as a result moved many types above and below the distorted baseline. Judgments about specific types are thus rendered difficult. In many instances, examination of such letters at high magnification in originals reveals that they actually are positioned correctly on the baseline, and the illusion of horizontal displacement is caused by inking effects. Read-S was replenished with miscast and oversized letters in several sorts. The 't' sort is about equally distributed between normal, worn

letters (t1) that lean slightly to the right (height: 1.8-1.95mm depending on wear) and a new oversized, usually erect t3 (height: 2.3-2.45mm) which positions correctly and is distinguished by an accentuated hooked terminal at the baseline (see Revels, B4v:16 "that" and B4v:22 "but the" for juxtaposed samples). The new type inks more boldly, emphasizing the size difference and spreading the ink-smear below the base-line, although the foot of the letter is actually positioned correctly. The same t3 appears in White-M, where it actually does ride low (0.2-0.25mm) and leans right (LLL, A2:7 "then", A2: 18,19). In contrast, the 't' sort of Creede-3 includes a normal, erect t1 (R&J Q2, A4:4 "it") and a normal-size replenished 't' with a severe right-lean (t2) that, even with heavy inking, is correctly positioned on the base-line (A4:4, "part"). This letter seems slightly taller than the normal because the top has not yet been worn down.

In general, discriminants consisting of miscast and wrong-size lower-case letters are limited to a few sorts in pica fonts, partly because of the limited sources of new types, and certainly because of the difficulty of detecting abnormal letters with any certainty. High-frequency letters such as 'c e l r s' seem useless as discriminants because of the absence of inherent distinguishing features. The cross of the S-face 'e', for example, appears to rotate through a range of about 8 degrees above and below the horizontal, suggesting a potential discriminant. However, the simultaneous appearances of 'e' with varying degrees of rotation in fonts such as Creede-1 and Creede-2 (Selimus STC 12310a) indicates a misstrike, misjustification, matrix-wobble during casting, or common damage.[23] Variations in inking, paper-stretch, and wear frequently obscure the stylistic differences in actual variants and abnormal letters and can be resolved only at high magnification in originals. For example, S-fonts commonly have three variants in the 'n' and 'u' sorts which differ in newness, height, width and weight (boldness). The height of vertical letter elements, particularly serifed ascenders and stems, varies according to the amount of wear and the kind of damage a letter has experienced so that dimensions must be expressed as a range of values (as in the following examples). Variant u1 (1.05mm wide, 1.7-1.8mm high) and the tall u2 (1.1mm wide, 1.9-2.0mm high) frequently appear identical because of these factors. The u2 at Revels B3v:22 inked lightly just to the edge of the top-serifs with no excess ink to blot upward as the wetted paper stretched around the top-serif during impression; in contrast, the short u1 at B3v:23 ("would") inked heavily and exhibits the stretch effect. Both types exhibit the common distortion caused by beating the type during lock-up: the left serif is depressed into the type because of the absence of support and the stem is bent inward slightly (see u2, Fools, F1:16, vs new u2, E2v:17) while the right serif is pushed upward rather than depressed because of the support provided to the malletblow by the left stem. As a result, the top of the letter slants upward, with left-stem heights of 1.7mm (u1) and 1.8mm (u2) and right-stem heights of 1.8mm (u1) and 1.95mm (u2). The printed images of the two 'u' variants (B3v:22,23) are nearly identical in height (1.85/1.9mm vs 1.8/1.95mm) and indistinguishable with the naked eye. Variant u3, which is exclusive in Eld-S

(Sej, B3:2,3), is slightly narrower (0.95-1.0mm) and of normal height (1.7mm), but when encountered in the context of other variants and the uneven inking and printing characteristics of a mixed font such as White-M (LLL, A3:4 "but", 24 "but"), it is easily confused with a lightly inked worn u1 or the tall u4 (0.95mm wide, 1.9mm high) (LLL, A3:2 "studie"). Similarly, inking and paper-stretch effects frequently confuse medium variant n1 (1.1mm wide, 1.65-1.75mm high) and bold, wide n2 (1.15mm wide, 1.7-1.8mm high), but since both commonly appear together, their value as discriminants is lessened. However, both can be confused with two miscastings that are valuable. Bold variant n3 is wider at the baseline (1.15mm vs 1.05mm) because the left stem leans (Revels, B3v:2 "and"; LLL, A3:15 "blinded"), while the left stem of n4 bows outward to 1.15mm at the center (Sej, B3:4 "mine", 11 "unto") to appear wider although the separation of stems is 1.1mm at the baseline.

The 'w' especially is prone to creating an illusion of extra height and low positioning, since the paper stretches along the pointed apexes and down into the type-shoulder during impression. About 30% of Read's 'w' sort is oversized (height: 1.9mm) and usually rides low (w2) (Revels, C2v:14,15,17), although a far greater portion merely seems oversized. The same is true of White-M, Creede-3 and other fonts in which the w2 variant occurs. A condensed "tight" 'w' (width: 1.55mm) (Revels, B1v:16, B3v:26, C1:18,32, I3:26) that prints with distinct apexes and lacks a center serif is difficult to decipher and illustrates one kind of problem associated with pica lower-case letters. Since no equivalent variant appears in contemporary S-fonts, the likely conclusion is that it should be dismissed as undefinable. However, it is a genuine variant that appears in an S-font used by Henry Bynneman some thirty years earlier (The Enimie of Idlenesse STC11476 [1568], prefatory letter, [unsigned verso]: 8,10,12,13,22). By 1579, the condensed 'w' had been replaced by the normal S-face letter. However, it remains in John Allde's S-font as late as 1580 (A Warning for the Wise STC5259, C4:4 etc.). The newer majority w2 in White-M always rides low (LLL, A2:13) and appears along with an alternate-face 'w' (A2:23) as well as low-frequency remnants of the Guyot short second-stem 'w' (A2:14, A3:10). Creede-3 uses a distinctive w3 (introduced via Creede-2) in which the outer stems print finely and seem to bow outward, with serifs inside the stems (R&J Q2, A4v:2,13); it appears oversized in some instances (A4v:16 "swoong"). This w3 occurs in White-M and Stafford-EF as well as in S-fonts and is integral to the EF-face. In contrast, Eld-S and Windet-S lack the 'w' variants found in the above fonts. Overall, the comparison of these letters in several S-fonts is necessary to distinguish miscast letters from normal letters whose appearance is modified by inking and impression.

It seems that useful miscastings are even more limited in Y-fonts. Two variants of 't' were introduced into Eld-Y1, including a leaning low-rider t2 (Essayes STC18041, Yy1v:3 "it" "their"; Antichrist STC7120, [2]A2v:2,3,4) and an erect t1 which positions correctly (Yy1v:9 "wittily"). By mid-1604, the proportion of the leaning version diminished (Mal Q1, B4v:14 "witty" and B4v:16 "vnutterable", where it is juxtaposed to quite normal letters) with

further replenishment by the normal t1. Braddock-Y1 (1598) and -Y2 (1603) show a roughly equal distribution between erect t1 and a leaning t2, both of which position correctly (MND Q1, D1:7,8,9; Antichrist STC7120, [1]B2:5); Purfoot-Y1 is similar. Short-Y includes a low proportion of t1 (R3, H1:4,13, 17) and a very few low-riding t2 like Eld's that generally print more boldly (R3, H1:15,32, H1v:12,23,37). The 'w' sort includes four variants in Y-fonts. w2 is taller than normal (Short-Y, R3, H2:14,15,16). The left stem of w3 is taller than the right so that the top of the letter appears to slant downward to the right (Eld-Y1, Mal Q2, C1:1,12,22). This variant is probably attributable to a misstrike with the punch leaning to the left and producing an impression with uneven lateral depth. It is difficult to explain the w4 variant in which the right 'v' is quite short (1.4mm vs a normal 1.7mm) (Eld-Y1, Fools, B4v:15,32). A severely damaged punch seems the only possibility.

Finally, rather high concentrations of wrong-face and wrong-size punctuation (especially in Y-fonts) present a confusing situation. The distinction between replenishment and fouling is academic here since all printers had complementary fonts as a source of foul-case punctuation marks in black letter, italic, and larger faces. However, the appearance of several sizes of comma in Braddock-Y1 and Short-Y suggests deliberate replenishment, at least in regard to the size normally found in 96mm fonts; the 108mm variants are so grossly oversized as to suggest fouling. Commas are especially difficult to work with due to paper stretch and the effects produced by medial vs terminal justification. As a result, the 96mm and 108mm commas frequently cannot be reliably distinguished from each other, although they are usually distinguishable from heavily-inked normal commas.[24]