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`KAMA LOKA'

The kama loka plane of existence expresses the cosmology that is directly
relevant for our study. This plane of bodily form and sensual feelings
is divided into eleven loka: six are heavens inhabited by gods (deva loka);
five are worlds, four of which are inhabited by human beings, animals,
ghosts, and demons. The fifth world consists of eight major (and other subsidiary)
hells, situated in the interior of the earth, in which intense torment
and pain are experienced.

The six heavens (`deva loka')

The first heaven is below the summit of Mt Meru and is the residence
of the four guardians of the world (lokapala). The second heaven (Tavatinsa/
Tawutisa) is on the summit of Mt Meru, over which presides god Sakka
or Indra. These two heavens must, in fact, be taken together because
Indra presides over the four guardians, and together they impinge on
the world of men and animals. In myth and ritual Indra always appears
as the presiding deity.

Around and just below Indra's abode at the summit of Mt Meru are
the four mansions of the world guardians.[3] The palace to the east is that
of Dhrita-rashtra (Dhratarashtra), King of the Gandharvas (choristers
and musicians) who guard the eastern domain of the world and minister
to the pleasure of all gods. They wear white garments and are mounted
on white horses and wield swords and shields of crystal. On the south is
the palace of Virudhaka (Virudha) whose attendants are the Kumbandas,
monsters of immense size and ugly form. They wear blue garments, are
mounted on blue horses, and their swords and shields are made of sapphire.
They guard the southern division of the world. The palace of Virupaksha
stands in the west and he is the King of the Nagas. Their colour is red;
they wear red garments, ride red horses, carry weapons of coral and
flaming torches. They are the guardians of the western portion of the
world. The northern division belongs to Kuvera or Vaisravana (Vessavano),
who rules over the Yakshas; they are adorned in golden garments, ride
horses that shine like gold, etc. The Yakshas in the classical descriptions
are not as malevolent as they have come to be in modern Ceylon. (See
Hardy 1880, pp. 45-7). The Thai represent them in their temples as
enormous and horrible, though recognizably human in form.

In Buddhist mythology the Yakshas and Nagas appear frequently.
In Ceylon the Yakshas, ruled over by Kuvera the god of wealth, have
been elaborated on and transformed into the much-feared malevolent
demons. In Thailand, on the other hand, it is the Nagas who have a special
place.

The Nagas will figure importantly in this study of Thai religion. A brief
introductory note on them is therefore appropriate. They are thought
to reside under the rocks that support Mt Meru and under the waters
of the earth. Their bodies take the shape of serpents. They enjoy the
status of `demi-gods', and in Buddhism are usually represented as favourable
to the religion and its adherents. At the same time they are considered

to be formidable enemies when their wrath is aroused. They are associated
with rain and fertility.

Beyond and higher than the second heaven of Indra are four other
heavens that fall within the definition of kama loka. Of these, only one
need be mentioned here, the fourth called Tusita in which resides the
all-compassionate bodhisattva (Buddha-to-be) Maitreya, awaiting the time
when he will come down into the world of men as the next Buddha and
saviour. The Tusita heaven is regarded as the most delightful of the
heavens, in which all desires are satisfied. In it grows the kalpavriskha
tree (in Thai, Karaphruk or Kamaphruk), which produces fruits of gold,
silver, jewels, etc., that gratify all desires. The tree appears frequently
in Thai rituals and will greet us with its promises at many places in
this book.

The five worlds

The four lower worlds of men, animals, asuras (demons), and ghosts
(preta) stand in contrast to the heavens. While life in the heavens is
unadulterated pleasure, the lower worlds are increasingly painful. Human
beings and animals as forms of life are self-evident and require no commentary
at this stage, but the others do.

The asuras are in Buddhist (and Hindu) mythology the arch opponents
and enemies of the gods. They are demi-gods themselves and are of the
underworld, living under Mt Meru. They have had repeated contests
with the gods of Indra's heaven, and the great representation of this
contest is the churning of the ocean for the nectar of life which the gods
successfully took away from them. This story is represented in both
Hindu and Buddhist architecture, notably in Cambodia at Angkor. The
asuras were finally subdued by Indra, and it is the task of the four guardians
to continue to ward off their attacks. Rahu and Ketu are the much-feared
asuras which swallow the moon and cause eclipses. The asuras as the
classical opponents of the deities have found other expressions in contemporary
South-east Asian countries: devas versus yakka in Ceylon,
versus nats in Burma, versus phii in Thailand.

While the asuras are a permanent category of supernatural being, the
pretas are of a different status. They are ghosts of dead humans who had
recently inhabited the earth. They are condemned to live in a kind of
hell or may wander about on earth, haunting the places they formerly
lived in. Although in themselves not harmful to man, their appearance
and attributes are disgusting. They are of gigantic size, they have dried up
limbs, loose skin, enormous bellies. They continually wander about,
consumed with hunger and thirst, yet are never able to eat or drink

because of their small mouths, constricted throats and the scorching,
boiling heat that emanates from their bodies.

Some writers have seen in pretas the inversion of the Buddhist monk
(Yalman 1964). It is also apposite to point out that the preta condition
of perpetual hunger and thirst may possibly signify the extreme punishment
for withholding food from monks and for being stingy in merit-making.
Despite their sinful condition, it is felt that relatives can and should
transfer to the pretas some of the merit accruing from their merit-making
acts (such as donating gifts of food and other items to the monks).

Finally, the eight major hells of the fifth world are fiery places of
intense misery and pain. One has only to see the murals on the walls of
Buddhist temples in Thailand and Ceylon to understand that hell is no
mere abstract concept but is imagined in all its horror and sadism. In
heaven handsome men and women embrace and walk around in a garden
of wishing trees (kalpavriksha) studded with diamonds and other gems; in
hell one burns in raging fire and one's sides are pierced with weapons
by demons. A Siamese law book (Book of Indra) gives the following
description of heaven (Alabaster 1871, p. 294):