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III

Despite the overall uniformity of a typeface, stylistic variations in some minor aspects of the design of a letter, the width of a letter, and serif formation occurred which provide a category of internal discriminants for distinguishing same-face fonts. These divide into two groups, depending upon whether the stylistic variation is obvious to the naked eye, or whether examination and measurement at high magnification is necessary for discrimination.[25] The latter is generally true of Y-face variants and S-face 'k' variants. In instances such as the S-face 'n' and 'u' noted earlier, a difference can be sensed because of the heavy inking of these letters, but both widths randomly appear bold, or as in the case of the 't', the actual horizontal positioning is confused by heavy inking of the underside of the foot. When the 'n u' appear amidst other wrongface bold variants as in Danter-M and Creede-3, the difficulty of sorting them out with the naked eye is aggravated.[26]

In the S-face, the vertical and oblique stress along with accentuated serifs render the diagonal letters 'x y z' especially susceptible to illusions. Variations in inking and damage to the stems and serifs of the two 'y' variants often suggest stylistic differences, but the variants are identical except that the right diagonal of "tiny" y2 ("Le Be" specimens 12, 13) is shorter (2.55mm vs 2.7mm). Both exhibit an enclosed angle of 45 degrees, a heavily stressed left


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stem and a quite fine right diagonal terminated in an offset-left ball, with top-serifs extending 0.25mm on both sides of the diagonals. y1 usually rides correctly, although miscasting sometimes causes a left-lean so that the right top-serif extends above the x-line, while y2 seems always to ride high (as much as 0.4mm: Creede-1,2, Sel, D1:11,12, D1v:4; Simmes-S, R3, C4v:2). S-fonts use both wide x1 and expanded x2 variants that are frequently indistinguishable without magnification because of wear, damage and inking of the accentuated serifs of the expanded variant. The left top- and base-serifs of many expanded x2 in Field-S fail to ink on the outside, making them appear narrower (Arte, E3:22, "extraordinary" vs "extol-"), although the diagonals cross at a right angle. A faulty strike from the x2 punch produced this defective x3, which is quite common and seen in Creede-3 (R&J Q2, B1v:31) and other S-fonts. However, both the wide x1 and x2 appear in Simmes-S (Hamlet Q1 STC22275, E1:27,34; Mal Q1, F3:4 "extinct", F3:7 "fixt") and are differentiated by the diagonal crossing angle (x2,3: 90 deg., x1: 72 deg.). Two common variants of 'z' occur. Wide z1 (1.6-1.65mm wide across tips of serifs, diagonal: 2.4mm) usually prints fine (LLL, D3:19; Sej, C4v:13; Coblers, C2:13; Sel, D3v:7); expanded z2 (1.75mm, diagonal: 2.55mm) is squarish and bolder (LLL, A3:14; Sej, D2:14; Sel, D3v:15; R3, E4:35). Oppositely inked z1 and z2 are difficult to distinguish except at high magnification.

Other useful obvious S-face variants occur in the 'b f g h i k' sorts. Two apparent 'b' variants (bold: b2) probably can be credited to a difference in the depth of impression in the matrices which supplied them, since both exhibit the same acute enclosed angle of the bowl-top junction with the ascender and length of oblique fineline (0.7mm), and the same bowl-width (1.3mm) and separation between bowl-junctions on the ascender (1.3mm). The junction-angle of taller (3.1mm vs 2.9mm), wider (1.35mm) variant b3 is roughly the same, but the oblique fineline is longer (0.9mm) and the bowl junctions are separated by 1.45mm; the bottom of the bowl joins the ascender almost horizontally at the baseline, whereas it curves upward to form the junction in b1-2 (d'Olive, E1v:11 "best" vs "be"; Whore, D3:2 "ru b1 b3 ers"). Both d1-d2 are tall letters (2.9-3.05mm high) with a marked left counter and acute bowl-junction angles but differ in the separation of junctions on the ascender (d1: 1.15mm; d2: 1.25mm); the bowl-stroke of the narrower d1 (1.15-1.175mm) forms an inverted pear-shaped counter that often seems awkward; in d2, the stroke thickens as the bowl widens toward the baseline (top: 1.15mm vs 1.2mm). In both, the ascender broadens to a slanted termination sans top-serif (d1: LLL, A3v:10,11,13,14; Whore, A3v:5 "dinner", C3v:15 "heard", d2: LLL, A3v:33 "made", B4:14 "helde"; Whore, A2v:2 "behold", 9 "ashamde"). The thicker d2 almost invariably prints bold; oppositely inked d1-2 are usually indistinguishable (see LLL, B4:21 "d2 i d1"). New clean-printing samples of the tall (2.9-2.95mm) f1 variant exhibit a slightly stressed ascender which thins as it curves smoothly high above the cross (0.9mm) into the shoulder that broadens and terminates horizontally in a small pear (Sel, D1:15, D2: 4,5). The right half of the base-serif frequently bends downward in good letters (LLL, A2v:15, A3:9; R3 A4:4), a result either of damage or a misstrike.


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Flattening damage to the shoulder, downward bending of the pear, and heavy inking of the ascender and underside of the shoulder create a variety of appearances. However, a separate punch is probably responsible for variant f2 which is similar to f1 except that the bolder ascender bends to an oblique line which curves over at the h-line and downward into a larger pear (LLL, B4:5 vs B4:6). The uncommon shorter (2.65-2.75mm) f3 variant with a bold ascender and flat shorter shoulder (1.15-1.2mm) terminated in a slight pear dominates Eld-S (Sej, B1v:31, B2:22; Sel, H1:13,16); it probably is imported from a smaller face, also appearing in Eld-Y1 (Fools, B4:28). The narrower EF-face 'f' appears in mixed fonts (LLL, B2:34 "confesse") and also in S-fonts that have been extensively replenished (Simmes-S, R3, A4:10 "if"; Read-S, Revels, D4v:4). Two 'g' variants occur. g1 leans left because the body, link and loop are vertically aligned at the left, and exhibits a left counter and extra-long ear (Sej, B3:5; LLL, A3:7 "lyght"). The left lean is less pronounced in some letters, probably because of matrix-wobble. Creede-3 uses roughly equal portions of g1 (R&J Q2, A4v:3 "go",16,18) and the vertically aligned g2 with a smaller bowl (R&J Q2, A4v:6 "judgement") (see later discussion). Three 'h' variants occur. The smaller h1 (1.075mm wide, 2.9mm high) is common, while the larger h2 (1.125-1.15mm wide, 3.0mm high) is less frequent; the ascender usually seems to lean right although the vertical elements are parallel and, as with b2 and d2, h2 invariably prints bold because of the thick face elements (Simmes-S, R3, F4v:4; Read-S, Revels, B4v:4; White-M, LLL, B4:14 "helde", 15 "with", Fools, C1:4 "thriftie", I3v:25 "this"). The ascender (2.85-2.9mm) of miscast h3 leans right (x-line width: 1.05mm, baseline: 1:15mm), usually prints bold (d'Olive, E2v:9 "with", 10; Fools, I2v: 11 "have", E4v:24 "her"; Whore, A2v:17 "had") and is easily confused with the EF-face miscast (normal) 'h'. Two 'i' variants occur. In the common version i1, the dot is vertically aligned with the letter and is positioned at the tips of triangular top-serifs. In the fairly rare i2, the dot is to the left of the letter and below the h-line. Simmes-S and Field-S use the left-dotted i2 exclusively, while Creede-3 divides between the original i2 and the center-dot i1 from Creede-2 (R&J Q2, A4:21 "enemies"; A4:18 "villaine"); Creede-4 uses the common i1. Finally, three "squat" 'k' variants appear in S-fonts, but these are difficult to distinguish except at high magnification. The common k1 and k2 are differentiated by the height of the junction of the arm-leg link with the ascender (k1: 0.65mm; k2: 0.75mm); the arm and leg, oriented 45 degrees above and below horizontal, form a right angle and are tipped with accentuated serifs which, in k1, usually are worn to nubs and produce a narrower appearance. The shorter arm (0.65mm) of variant k3 is at a higher angle (52 deg.) and extends 0.9mm beyond the ascender (vs 1.0mm in k1-k2); the low (0.65mm) junction of the arm-leg link on the ascender is at an oblique angle rather than perpendicular (Simmes-S, R3, E1v:10, E2v:13; Field-S, Arte, D4v:1, E3v:3; Creede-4, Antichrist, [2]H1:35, H2:30). The low junction permits distinguishing k3 from the EF-face oblique-junction k2 (0.65mm vs 0.85mm).

Unlike the S-face, the Y-face exhibits considerable susceptibility to damage


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and wear which tend to obscure the stylistic features of letters. Routine battering and the beating of the type into place in the chase during locking-up of the forme wreaked havoc with lower-case letters, especially complex forms such as 'a k y' and some ligatures. The consequent changes in shape and inking caused by battering often create the appearance of variants when, in fact, the suspected variants probably derive from the same punch or matrix. This is also true of miscast letters which lean or displace from the baseline. The general principle that the form of a letter can be inferred from the combination of traits that recur consistently in most samples must, therefore, be applied with extreme caution when working from reproductions.[27] The diversity in Y-face letter appearance caused by battering and inking is no where more apparent than in the 'a'. Any page of text in old type seems to exhibit a plethora of variants, but these usually can be reduced to four or five at most by analysis of the shapes and orientation of portions of the letter.[28] The bowl's diagonal top-stroke in variants a1-2 is at a high angle (28 degrees above horizontal) and joins directly to the back with an enclosed angle that varies because of the differing back structures of the two (see list of samples in Appendix following 'k' variants). In a1, the shoulder stroke curves directly into the straight back which is usually perpendicular to the baseline, producing an enclosed junction angle of 62 degrees, although the right edge of the back gathers ink above the junction and frequently appears curved to the naked eye. In contrast, the shoulder stroke of a2 continues to curve slightly inward to the center of the bowl, then bends to the right and abruptly reverses direction at the baseline to form a "fishing hook" serif which terminates vertically. The enclosed junction angle is difficult to measure, since the straight top-stroke joins a curving back. The back of a1 curves broadly at the baseline to form a long (0.45-0.5mm) hook that points upward at about 35 degrees; it symmetrically balances the curve at the top of the back, but is frequently jammed inward to approximate the a2 hook or is blunted. Unlike the Fell and Le Be 'a', the oblique left portion of the shoulder strokes of both a1-2 are unstressed and thin imperceptibly (if at all); both are terminated with a pear (larger and longer in a2, but often blunted) that extends slightly beyond the edge of the bowl in new letters (0.05mm); damage to the terminations produces a longer, flatter appearance or a tightly curved shoulder that terminates short of the bowl's edge. Infrequent samples of both (15%) print a medial bend because of ink accumulation although the shoulder is a continuous curve. In both variants, the fine oblique top-stroke drops directly to form the oval left edge of the bowl and usually inks as a sharp angle; this contrasts with the Fell and Le Be bowls which are formed by a curving top-stroke that broadens into the bowl's oval edge. Finally, the bowl of a1 is slightly higher (0.65 vs 0.6mm) as measured between bottom and top junctions on the back; conversely, the peak of a2's shoulder is slightly higher above the top junction (0.75 vs 0.7mm). These dimensions remain remarkably constant despite the condition of the letters. The top-stroke of variants a3-4 is at a lower angle (22 deg.) and the final 0.1mm bends to form a perpendicular junction with the straight back. The dimensions of a3 are identical to a2 (bowl-height of 0.6mm,

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0.75mm top junction to shoulder-peak), but the base-serif is broad as in a1. The straight back is usually vertical but appears to lean slightly right in a small number of samples. a4 appears slightly taller because of a lower bowl (0.55mm, 0.8mm top junction to shoulder-peak), and the "fishing hook" base-serif is rather tall (0.55mm). The straight top-stroke curves into the oval of the bowl to produce a rounded appearance, but not nearly as much as in the Fell 'a'.

Given the susceptibility of the 'y' to damage, a wide range of appearances occurs, but just two punches supplied the 'y' sort. Variant y1 exhibits a wider apex angle (42 deg.) than y2 (38 deg.) The lightly stressed left diagonal accentuates its apparent width. The right diagonal is slightly longer than in y2 (2.7mm vs 2.65mm) and terminates at the bottom with a round ball, while the termination of y2 is oval and offset to the left of the diagonal. Flat top-serifs extend 0.25mm on both sides of the diagonals of y1; the outside of the left top-serif frequently is bent upward, and both serifs experience damage and wear which reduces the outside portion (y1: Essays, Yy1v:15 "your" [2]; MND, B1v:14 "euery"; Poetaster STC14781 [1602], B2:7 "day", 8; LLL, A3v:9 "say", 11 "day"). The top-serifs of y2 slant downward and extend 0.3mm on the insides of the diagonals; in new samples, the left top-serif has a very slight nub outside the diagonal which is quickly eradicated (y2: Essays, Yy1v:11 "by"; MND, B1v:12 "choyce", 13 "boyes"; Poetaster, B2:12 "thy", 13 "my"; LLL, A2v:2, A3:7 "whyle"). Both variants appear together in most Y-fonts, although y2 seems exclusive in Short-Y. Miscasting seems responsible for apparent variants of both in which the letter is rotated counter-clockwise on the apex. Damage to y2 produces an inward-bowing right diagonal both above and below the baseline.

The variety of appearances in the 'k', unlike most other sorts, actually indicates a large number of variant letters, all uniform in style with minor but consistent differences in structure and dimensions. Vulnerability to normal bending damage is limited to the area of the letter below the link which connects the arm-leg to the ascender. While other portions of the letter have relatively broad foundations on the type-body, the counter enclosed by the leg, link, and foot of the ascender eliminated internal support so that a "knee" bend frequently occurs in the leg, and the foot bends inward. Neither element ever bends outward. In contrast, bending damage is rare in the fineline arm which seems most vulnerable; the exposed arm-serif, however, normally experiences wear, bending, and blunting, often being reduced to a dot in old letters and sometimes bent in-line with the arm.

Three different size ranges occur. The height of the correct-size 'k' ranges from 2.75-2.85mm, depending upon the condition of triangular top-serif, which is rounded, blunted, or worn off in older letters. Anomalous undersized variants probably were cut for smaller faces (about 70mm bare 20-line height) and in most cases ride slightly high and usually lean slightly right. The sophistication required of a punchcutter in controlling a letter's printed appearance while working within nearly identical size parameters is evident in as much as these smaller 'k' always seem "tiny" despite the fact that the junction


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height (0.85mm), the length of the link (0.4-0.45mm), and the extension of arm and leg (0.85-0.9mm) to the right of the ascender duplicate the dimensions of correct-size letters. The new "tiny" 'k' at LLL A2v:13, for example, exhibits a normal height of 2.85mm, a junction height of 0.9mm, a medium length (0.5mm) link, and a quite short (0.35mm) high-angle (52 deg.) arm topped by a massive 0.95mm crescent. Yet the letter looks tiny amidst S-face letters in White-M, as does another 'k' in Read-S (Revels, C3v:29 "lookt"). The effect is similar in Y-fonts: the small 2.5-2.65mm 'k' variants with 0.8-0.9mm arm-leg extensions look tiny in Eld-Y1 (Mal Q2, B2v:7 "looke", C2:31 "harke"; Q3, H1v:15, H2:21; Fools, G1v:14 "knocking", G2v:23 "knowing"), in later White-M (Fools, C2v:25 "take", C4:16 "thinke", I1v:17 "drunke"), and Allde-Y1 (Granados Deuotions STC 16902 [1598], p. 23:17). The variety of undersized 'k' provide useful discriminants. For example, an anomalous 'k' with a low-angle arm (42 deg.) and long leg (0.95mm) which extends a full 1.0mm occurs in late Eld-Y1 (Fools, H1v:31 "locke") but apparently not in other Y-fonts. However, caution is required in assuming that a potential 'k' discriminant is undersized. Old, very worn normal 'k' variants with reduced height-to-paper and element width, such as those encountered in late White-M in Fools (CD, I), generally look like a 2.5-2.65mm letter even in originals, but measure 2.7-2.8mm at high magnification.

At the opposite end of the scale, 2.95mm 'k' variants with correspondingly high (0.95-1.05mm) junctions appear in Y-fonts. The Braddock-Y1 tall (2.95mm) variant k7 is a scaled-up version of normal elegant k1 differentiated by a higher junction (0.95-1.0mm), longer link (0.55mm), shorter (0.55mm) high-angle (48 deg.) arm, and long leg (1.0mm) which extends beyond the arm (0.9mm vs 1.0mm). The letter as often rides low and leans right (MND, C4v:8 "makes", D2:11 "talke") as not (D1:16 "quake", D2:1 "looke") and appears in Read-S (Revels, I3v:3 "thinke" etc.). The apex of the triangular top-serif of the tall variants is commonly sheared or blunted and prints with a flat top. The intermediate stage of the process is evident in the letter at MND C4v:24 ("skill"), where blunting has flattened the apex of the triangle and pushed the apex metal into a small spur (0.1mm) on the right of the ascender. This peculiar form of damage is uncommon in other 'k' variants where the apex of the top-serif is usually rounded by wear. The effect of newness on apparent size is obvious when new "elegant" k1 are visually compared without magnification to the tall variant k7. A new k1 in Braddock-Y2 is directly beneath a 'p' (Poetaster, D4v:7/8), a setting which totally eliminates paper-stretch effects and permits an accurate measurement of the height of 2.8mm. Other samples measure up to 2.9mm (B2:3 "workes", B3v:4 "broken"). A folio prose setting such as Essays STC18041 apparently reduces overall paper-stretch since the new k1 in Eld-Y1 measures 2.75-2.8mm (Yy1v:19 "speake", 27 "talke" etc.). Furthermore, the new ascender element in both Braddock-Y2 and Eld-Y1 is wide with distinct edges not yet rounded by beating during lock-up. The same is true of other new Y-face 'k' variants noted in the Appendix.

A few simple variants appear in Y-fonts. Short's i3, l2, and t2 are cast on a narrow body and are left-justified so that the crammed spacing is obvious in


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various combinations of the letters (R3 Q1, H3v:8 "will", H3v:13 "it", H4v:4 "vnwillingnes", H4v:10 "enuie", "selfe", H4v:33 "shortlie", H2:24 "left"). The narrow 'i' dots at the tip of the triangular top-serifs of tall letters. Variants include a normally spaced i1 with high dot and i2 that dots slightly beneath the top-serif of tall letters (Fawne, D1v:15 "vile"). The difference is apparent with crisp new letters. The left-justified t2 appears also in Field-Y where the unsuccessful kerning with the 'f' is quite obvious (Observations, A8:16 "after"). Most Y-fonts use the normally justified letters. In general, the Y-face seems to include relatively few internal variants, suggesting a closely guarded source of matrices from the seminal set of punches. On the other hand, it seems probable that the punchcutter responsible for the S-face cut two sizes in the same style, given the striking correspondence of stylistic features in the normal b1, d1, h1 and the slightly larger but otherwise identical b3, d2 and h2; copying by a second punchcutter seems impossible in this instance.