Aristotle's philosophy being carried to the west, pleased the subtle geniuses who
were the virtuosi of those times of ignorance. The schoolmen were
infatuated with it, and borrowed from that philosopher
[133]
a great many
notions on lending upon interest, whereas its source might have been
easily traced in the gospel; in short, they condemned it absolutely and
in all cases. Hence commerce, which was the profession only of mean
persons, became that of knaves; for whenever a thing is forbidden, which
nature permits or necessity requires, those who do it are looked upon as
dishonest.
Commerce was transferred to a nation covered with infamy, and soon
ranked with the most shameful usury, with monopolies, with the levying
of subsidies, and with all the dishonest means of acquiring wealth.
The Jews, enriched by their exactions, were pillaged by the tyranny
of princes; which pleased indeed, but did not ease, the people.
[134]
What passed in England may serve to give us an idea of what was done
in other countries. King John
[135]
having imprisoned the Jews, in order
to obtain their wealth, there were few who had not at least one of their
eyes plucked out. Thus did that king administer justice. A certain Jew,
who had a tooth pulled out every day for seven days successively, gave
ten thousand marks of silver for the eighth. Henry III extorted from
Aaron, a Jew at York, fourteen thousand marks of silver, and ten
thousand for the queen, in those times they did by violence what is now
done in Poland with some semblance of moderation. As princes could not
dive into the purses of their subjects because of their privileges, they
put the Jews to the torture, who were not considered as citizens.
At last a custom was introduced of confiscating the effects of those
Jews who embraced Christianity. This ridiculous custom is known only by
the law which suppressed it.
[136]
The most vain and trifling reasons
were given in justification of that proceeding; it was alleged that it
was proper to try them, in order to be certain that they had entirely
shaken off the slavery of the devil. But it is evident that this
confiscation was a species of the right of amortisation, to recompense
the prince, or the lords, for the taxes levied on the Jews, which ceased
on their embracing Christianity.
[137]
In those times, men, like lands,
were regarded as property. I cannot help remarking, by the way, how this
nation has been sported with from one age to another: at one time, their
effects were confiscated when they were willing to become Christians;
and at another, if they refused to turn Christians, they were ordered to
be burned.
In the meantime, commerce was seen to arise from the bosom of
vexation and despair. The Jews, proscribed by turns from every country,
found out the way of saving their effects. Thus they rendered their
retreats for ever fixed; for though princes might have been willing to
get rid of their persons, yet they did not choose to get rid of their
money.
The Jews invented letters of exchange;
[138]
commerce, by this
method, became capable of eluding violence, and of maintaining
everywhere its ground; the richest merchant having none but invisible
effects, which he could convey imperceptibly wherever he pleased.
The Theologians were obliged to limit their principles; and
commerce, which they had before connected by main force with knavery,
reentered, if I may so express myself, the bosom of probity.
Thus we owe to the speculations of the schoolmen all the misfortunes
which accompanied the destruction of commerce;
[139]
and to the avarice
of princes, the establishment of a practice which puts it in some
measure out of their power.
From this time it became necessary that princes should govern with
more prudence than they themselves could ever have imagined; for great
exertions of authority were, in the event, found to be impolitic; and
from experience it is manifest that nothing but the goodness and lenity
of a government can make it flourish.
We begin to be cured of Machiavelism, and recover from it every day.
More moderation has become necessary in the councils of princes. What
would formerly have been called a master-stroke in politics would be
now, independent of the horror it might occasion, the greatest
imprudence.
Happy is it for men that they are in a situation in which, though
their passions prompt them to be wicked, it is, nevertheless, to their
interest to be humane and virtuous.
