University of Virginia Library

BOOK SIX

Chapter XX

COMMENTARIES ON LAO TZŬ's TEACHINGS[1]

Virtue is internal. Acquirement is external. "Superior
virtue is unvirtue" means that the mind does not indulge
in external things. If the mind does not indulge in external
things, the personality will become perfect. The personality
that is perfect is called "acquirement". In other words,
acquirement is the acquirement of the personality. In
general, virtue begins with non-assertion, develops with
non-wanting, rests secure with non-thinking, and solidifies
with non-using. If it acts and wants, it becomes restless;
if restless, it is not perfect. If put into use and thought
about, it does not solidify; if it does not solidify, it cannot
work successfully. If it is not perfect[2] and cannot work
successfully, it will become self-assertive virtue. If it becomes
self-assertive virtue,[3] it is non-virtue. Contrary to this, if
unvirtue, it has virtue. Hence the saying: "Superior
virtue is unvirtue. Therefore it has virtue."

The reason why men value non-assertion and nonthinking
as emptiness is that by remaining empty one's will
is ruled by nothing. Verily, tactless people purposely regard
non-assertion and non-thinking as emptiness. To be sure,
those who purposely regard non-assertion and non-thinking
as emptiness, never forget emptiness in their minds. They
are thus ruled by the will to emptiness. By "emptiness"
is meant the status of the will not ruled by anything.[4] To
be ruled by the pursuit of emptiness is ipso facto not emptiness.
When he who rests empty does not assert, he does not
regard non-assertion as having a constant way. If he does
not regard non-assertion as having a constant way, he is

then empty. If he is empty, his virtue flourishes. The
virtue that flourishes is called "superior virtue". Hence
the saying: "Superior virtue is non-assertion and without
pretension."[5]

By "benevolence" is meant the love of men in a pleasant
mood in one's innermost heart. It is to rejoice in the good
luck of others and to lament on their bad luck. It is born
of the sense of sheer necessity, but not of the want of reward.
Hence the saying: "Superior benevolence acts but makes
no pretensions."

"Righteousness" covers the manners[6] of ruler and
minister, superior and inferior, the distinction between
father and son, high and low, the contact between intimate
acquaintances, between friends, and the difference between
the close and the distant, the internal and the external. The
minister ought to serve the ruler aright; the inferior ought
to comfort the superior aright. The son ought to serve the
father aright; the low ought to respect the high aright.
Intimate acquaintances and good friends ought to help each
other aright. The close ought to be taken in while the
distant ought to be kept off. In short, "righteousness"
implies whatever is done aright. Anything right ought to
be done aright. Hence the saying: "Superior righteousness
acts and makes pretensions."

"Propriety" refers to the mode in which one's feelings
are expressed. It is concerned with the cultural embellishments
of all righteous acts, such as the mutual relations of
ruler and minister, father and son. It is the way whereby
high and low, worthy and unworthy, are differentiated.

For instance, when one pines after someone else but cannot
make himself understood, he runs fast towards the person
and bows low in front of him so as to express his attachment
to that person. Similarly, when one loves someone from
one's innermost heart and cannot make himself known, he
uses pleasing words and beautiful phrases to convince the
person loved. Thus, propriety is the outer embellishment
whereby the inner heart is understood. Hence[7] "propriety"
refers to the mode in which one's feelings are expressed.

In general, when a man responds to external things, he
does not know that the response reveals the propriety of his
personality. The masses of the people practise propriety
only to show respect for others, wherefore propriety is now
cordial and again simple. The superior man practises
propriety on purpose to cultivate his personality. Since it is
practised on purpose to cultivate his personality, it is intrinsic
in mind and forms superior propriety. Since superior
propriety is intrinsic in mind and popular propriety changes
from time to time, they do not respond to each other.
Since they do not respond to each other, hence the saying:
"Superior propriety acts and no one responds to it."

Though the masses of the people change propriety from
time to time, yet the saintly man is always courteous and
respectful, practising the rules of propriety which bind him
hand and foot. In so doing he never slackens. Hence the
saying: "Superior virtue stretches its arm and enforces its
rules."

Tao accumulates; accumulation[8] accomplishes an
achievement; and Teh is the achievement of Tao. Achievement

solidifies; solidity shines; and Jên[9] is the shining of
Teh. Shine has gloss; gloss has function; and Ih[10] is the
function of Jên. Function has propriety; propriety has
embellishment; and Li[11] is the embellishment of Ih. Hence
the saying: "One leaves Tao and then Teh appears. One
leaves Virtue and then Benevolence appears. One leaves
Benevolence and then Righteousness appears. One leaves
Righteousness and then Propriety appears."[12]

Propriety is the mode expressive of feelings. Embellishment
is the decoration of qualities. Indeed, the superior
man takes the inner feelings but leaves the outer looks, likes
the inner qualities but hates the outer decorations. Who
judges inner feelings by outer looks, finds the feelings bad.
Who judges inner qualities by outer decorations, finds the
inner qualities rotten. How can I prove this? The jade of
Pien Ho was not decorated with the five bright colours.
The bead of Marquis Sui[13] was not decorated with yellow
gold.[14] Their qualities are so good that nothing is fit to
decorate them. Verily, anything that functions only after
being decorated must have poor qualities. For this reason,
between father and son propriety is simple and not brilliant.
Hence the saying: "Propriety is superficial semblance only."

In general, things that do not flourish together are Yin[15]
and Yang.[16] Principles that mutually take and give are threat
and favour. What is substantial in reality but simple in
appearance, is the propriety between father and son. From

this viewpoint I can see that whoever observes complicated
rules of propriety is rotten in his innermost heart. Nevertheless,
to observe the rules of propriety is to comply with the
naïve minds of people.[17] The masses of the people, when
observing the rules of propriety, rejoice imprudently if
others respond, and resent it with blame if not. Now that
the observers of the rules of propriety with a view to
complying with the naïve minds of people are given the
opportunity to blame each other, how can there be no
dispute? Where there is dispute, there is disorder. Hence
the saying: "The rules of propriety are the semblance of
loyalty and faith, and the beginning of disorder."[18]

To act before affairs take place and move before principles
are clear, is called foreknowledge. The foreknower makes
arbitrary guesses with no special cause. How can I prove
this? Once upon a time, Chan Ho was seated and his
disciples were waiting upon him. When an ox mooed
outside the gate, the disciples said, "It is a black ox but
white is on its forehead." In response to this, Chan Ho
said, "True, it is a black ox but the white is on its horns."
Accordingly, they sent men out to investigate it and found
the ox was black and its horns were wrapped with white
cloth. To bewilder the minds of the masses with the
accomplished tact of Chan Tzŭ is almost as brilliant as any
gay flower. Hence the saying: "Foreknowledge is the
flower of Reason."

Supposing by way of trial we discarded the foresight of
Chan Tzŭ and sent out an ignorant boy less than five feet
tall to investigate it, then he would know the ox was black

and its horns were wrapped with white cloth, too. Thus,
with the foresight of Chan Tzŭ, who had afflicted his mind
and exhausted his energy in order to attain it, was
accomplished this same merit which an ignorant boy below
five feet tall can do. Therefore, it is said to be "the
beginning of ignorance". Hence the saying: "Foreknowledge
is the flower of Reason, but of ignorance the
beginning."

"A great sportsman"[19] is so called because his wisdom
is great. To "abide by the solid and dwell[20] not in the
superficial", as is said, means to act upon inner feelings
and realities and leave aside outer rules of propriety and
appearance. To "abide in the fruit and dwell[21] not in the
flower", as is said, means to follow causes and principles
and make no arbitrary guesses. To "discard the latter
and choose the former", as is said, means to discard outer
manners[22] and arbitrary guesses, and adapt causes, principles,
inner feelings, and realities.[23] Hence the saying: "He
discards the former and chooses the latter."

Man encountered by misery feels afraid in mind. If he
feels afraid in mind, his motives of conduct will become
straight. If his motives of conduct are straight, his thinking
processes will become careful. If his thinking processes are
careful, he will attain principles of affairs. If his motives of
conduct are straight, he will meet no misery. If he meets no
misery, he will live a life as decreed by heaven. If he attains
principles of affairs, he will accomplish meritorious works.
If he can live a life as decreed by heaven, his life will be
perfect and long. If he accomplishes meritorious works,
he will be wealthy and noble. Who is perfect, long-lived,
wealthy, and noble, is called happy. Thus, happiness
originates in the possession of misery. Hence the saying:
"Misery, alas! is what happiness rests upon" for
accomplishing its merit.

When one has happiness, wealth and nobility come to
him. As soon as wealth and nobility come to him, his
clothes and food become good. As soon as his clothes and
food become good, an arrogant attitude appears. When an
arrogant attitude appears, his conduct will become wicked
and his action unreasonable. If his conduct is wicked, he
will come to an untimely end. If his action is unreasonable,
he will accomplish nothing. Indeed, to meet the disaster of

premature death without making a reputation for achievement,
is a great misery. Thus, misery originates in the
possession of happiness. Hence the saying: "Happiness,
alas! is what misery is hidden in."

Indeed, those who administer affairs by following reason
and principle never fail to accomplish tasks. Those who
never fail to accomplish tasks, can attain the honour and
influence of the Son of Heaven for their best or at least
easily secure the rewards and bounties of ministers and
generals. Indeed, those who discard reason and principle
and make arbitrary motions, though they have the honour
and influence of the Son of Heaven and the feudal lords
on the one hand and possess ten times[24] the wealth of I Tun
and T`ao Chu, will eventually lose their subjects and ruin
their financial resources. The masses of the people who
discard reason imprudently and make arbitrary motions
easily, do not know that the cycle of misery and happiness
is so great and profound and the way is so wide and long.
Hence Lao Tzŭ taught men by saying: "Who foresees
the catastrophe?"

Everybody wants wealth, nobility, health, and longevity.
Yet none can evade the disaster of poverty, lowliness, death,
or untimely end. To have the want in mind for wealth,
nobility, health, and longevity, and meet poverty, lowliness,
death, or untimely end, in the long run, means the inability
to reach what one wants to reach. In general, who misses
the way he seeks and walks at random, is said to be
bewildered. If bewildered, he cannot reach the place he wants
to reach. Now the masses of the people cannot reach the place
they want to reach. Hence the saying of "bewilderment".

That the masses of the people cannot reach the place
they want to reach, has been true since the opening of heaven
and earth till the present. Hence the saying: "The people
have been bewildered from time immemorial."[25]

By "square" is implied the correspondence of the internal
with the external, the agreement of word with deed. By
"strictness" is implied the determination to die in the cause
of fidelity, to take matters of property and money easy.
By "uprightness" is implied the sense of duty to stand by[26]
the just, the frame of mind to be impartial. By "brightness"
is implied the honour of official rank and the excellence of
clothes and fur garments. Now, the upholders of the right
way of life, though earnest in mind and adaptable outside,
neither slander the defamed nor debase the fallen. Though
determined to die a martyr to fidelity and not be covetous
of money, they neither insult the fickle nor put the greedy
to shame. Though righteous and impartial, they neither
spurn the wicked nor accuse the selfish. Though their
influence is great and their clothes excellent, they neither
show off before the humble nor look down upon the poor.
What is the cause of this? Well, suppose those who have
lost the way are willing to listen to able man[27] and ask
knowers of the way. Then they will not be bewildered.
Now, the masses of the people want successes but meet
failures because they were born ignorant of reason and
principle and are still unwilling to ask the knowers and
listen to the able. The masses of the people being thus not

willing to ask the knowers and listen to the able, if saintly
men reproach[28] their misery and failure, they show resentment.
The masses are many, the saintly men are few. That the
few cannot prevail upon the many, is natural. Now, to
make enemies of All-under-Heaven habitually is not the
way to keep oneself intact and enjoy a long life. For this
reason, the saintly men follow the four standards of conduct
and exalt them in solitude. Hence the saying: "The
saintly man is square but not sharp, strict but not obnoxious,
upright but not restraining, bright but not dazzling."

Sharpness and brightness, intuition and wisdom, are endowed
by heaven. Motion and repose, thinking and worry,

are enacted by man. Man by virtue of natural brightness sees,
by virtue of natural sharpness hears, and thinks and worries
owing to natural intelligence. Therefore, if he sees too
much, his eyes will not be bright. If he hears too much, his
ears will not be sharp. And if his thinking and worry go
beyond the limits, his wisdom and knowledge will be
confused. The eyes, if not bright, cannot tell the black from
the white colour.[30] The ears, if not sharp, cannot distinguish
between voiceless and voiced sounds. And wisdom and
knowledge, if confused, cannot discriminate the gaining
from the losing game. The eyes unable to tell the black
from the white colour are said to be blind. The ears unable
to distinguish between voiceless and voiced sounds are
said to be deaf. And the mind unable to discriminate the
gaining from the losing game is said to be insane. Blind,
one cannot escape dangers whether by day or night. Deaf,
one cannot perceive the damage caused by thunder. And
insane, one cannot evade the calamities of the violation of
laws and decrees prevailing among his fellow men.[31] Therefore,
government of the people, as is said in Lao Tzŭ's
text, should suit the degree of motion and repose and save
the trouble of thinking and worry. The so-called obedience
to heaven means not to reach the limits of sharpness and
brightness nor to exhaust the functions of wisdom and
knowledge. If anybody ventures such extremity and exhaustion,
he will have to use too much of his mental
energy. If he uses too much of his mental energy,
then disasters from blindness, deafness, and insanity will
befall him. Hence the need of frugality. Who is frugal,
loves his mental energy and saves his wisdom and knowledge.
Hence the saying: "For governing the people and obeying
heaven, nothing is better than frugality."

The masses of the people, when using their mental energy,
are in a great hurry. If in a great hurry, they waste too much
of their energy. To waste too much energy is said to be
extravagant. The saintly man, when using his mental energy,
is reposed. Reposed, he consumes little energy. To consume
a small amount of energy is said to be frugal. Frugality,
called a tact, originates in reason and principle. The ability
to be frugal, indeed, is due to obedience to reason and
conformity to principle. The masses of the people, though
caught by troubles and overtaken by disasters, are still not
aware of the need of retirement and would not follow
reason and principle. The saintly man even before he sees
the signs of misery and disaster is already humble-minded
and follows reason and principle. This is said to be early
practice. Hence the saying: "Now consider that frugality
is said to come from early practice."

Who knows how to govern the people, thinks and worries
in repose. Who knows how to obey heaven, keeps his
sense-organs humble. If one thinks and worries in repose,[32]
his old virtue will not go out. If he keeps his sense-organs
humble, the spirit of peace will come in every day. Hence
the saying: "Accumulate an abundance of virtue."

Indeed, who can make the old virtue not go out and the
spirit of peace come in every day, is a man of early practice.
Hence the saying: "By early practice it is said that we can
accumulate an abundance of virtue."

After one accumulates virtue, one's mind becomes tranquil.

After one's mind becomes tranquil, one's spirit of peace
becomes abundant. After one's spirit of peace becomes
abundant, one becomes able to scheme well. After one
becomes able to scheme well, one becomes able to
control everything. If able to control everything,
one can easily overcome enemies in warfare. If one
can easily overcome enemies in warfare, his reputation
will spread all over the world. Since the reputation spreads
all over the world, hence the saying: "There is nothing
that cannot be overcome."

To find nothing invulnerable results from the accumulation
of an abundance of virtue. Hence the saying: "If one
accumulates an abundance of virtue, then there is nothing
that cannot be overcome."

If one can easily overcome his enemies in warfare, he
will be able to annex All-under-Heaven. If his reputation
spreads all over the world, the people will obey him. Thus,
when going forward, he can annex All-under-Heaven;
when turning backward, he finds the people obedient to
him. If his tact is profound, the masses of the people cannot
perceive its beginning and ending. Inasmuch as the
people cannot perceive its beginning and ending, no one
knows his limit. Hence the saying: "If nothing cannot
be overcome, then no one knows his limit."

In general, who first has the state and then loses it, and
who first has the body and then drives it to misery, cannot
be called able to have possession of the state and keep the
safety of the body. Indeed, who can have possession of the
state, must be able to keep the Altar of the Spirits of Land
and Grain in security; who can keep the safety of the
body, must be able to live through the period of life as

decreed by heaven. Such a man can be called able to have
possession of the state and keep the safety of the body.
Indeed, who can have possession of his state and keep the
safety of the body, always holds fast to Tao. If he holds
fast to Tao, his wisdom is deep. If his wisdom is deep, his
comprehension is far and wide. If his comprehension is
far and wide, then the masses of the people cannot know its
limit. It is only by realizing the true path[33] that one can
prevent people from seeing the limits of one's own affairs.
Who can prevent people from seeing the limits of his own
affairs, can keep the safety of his body and have possession
of his state. Hence the saying: "If no one knows his
limit,[34] one can[35] have possession of the state."

As to the so-called "possession of the state's mother",
the mother is Tao. Tao appears in the craft whereby the state
is possessed. As one has possession of the craft whereby
the state is possessed, he is said to have possession of the
state's mother. Indeed, Tao moves along with the world,
so that it lasts long in building life and abides forever in
keeping bounty. Hence the saying: "Who has possession
of the state's mother may last and abide." Trees have both widespread roots and straight roots.
The straight[36] root is what is called "stem"[37] in the text.
By means of the stem the tree builds up its life; by means
of the widespread roots the tree keeps up its life. Now,
virtue is the means whereby man builds up his life; bounty

is the means whereby man keeps up his life. Who establishes
himself upon principle, maintains his bounty long. Hence
the saying: "Deepen the roots." Who realizes the true
path, lasts long in the course of life. Hence the saying:
"Staunch the stem." If the stem is staunched, the life will
be long. If the roots are deepened, the activity will last for
ever. Hence the saying: "To deepen the roots and staunch
the stem is the way to long life and everlasting activity."

The craftsman, if he frequently changes his work, will
lose his accomplishment. The workman, if he frequently
shifts his occupation, will lose his accomplishment, too.
If one man loses half-a-day's accomplishment every day, in
ten days he will lose five men's accomplishment. If ten
thousand men each lose half-a-day's accomplishment every
day, in ten days they will lose fifty thousand men's
accomplishment. If so, the more numerous those who
frequently change their works are, the greater losses they
will incur. Likewise, if laws and decrees are altered,

advantages and disadvantages will become different. If
advantages and disadvantages are different, the duties of
the people will change. Change of duties is said to be
change of works. Therefore, by reasoning I can see that if
tasks are big and many and are frequently shifted, then few
of them can be accomplished; that if anybody keeps a
great vessel and moves it too often, it will incur many
damages; that if, when frying small fish, you poke them
around too often, you will ruin the cooking; and that if,
when governing a big country, you alter laws and decrees
too often, the people will suffer hardships. Therefore, the
ruler who follows the proper course of government, values
emptiness and tranquillity and takes the alteration of the
law seriously. Hence the saying: "Govern a big country[38]
as you would fry small fish."

People when ill hold physicians in esteem, and, when
miserable, hold ghosts in awe. When the sage is on the
throne, the people will have fewer desires. When the
people have fewer desires, their blood and spirit will become
orderly and their behaviour and conduct reasonable. If
blood and spirit are orderly[39] and behaviour and conduct
reasonable, there will be fewer disasters. Indeed, those
who suffer no trouble of boils and piles inside and incur no
misery of punishment and censure outside, hold ghosts in
great contempt. Hence the saying: "If with Tao Allunder-Heaven
is managed, even its ghosts will not haunt."

The people of an orderly age and ghosts and gods do not

harm each other. Hence the saying: "Not only will its
ghosts not haunt, but its gods will not harm the people."

If ghosts fall upon sick persons,[40] it is then said that ghosts
harm men. If men drive ghosts away, it is then said that
men harm ghosts. If the people violate laws and decrees,
it is then said that the people harm the sovereign. If the
sovereign punishes and chastises the people, it is then said
that the sovereign harms the people. If the people do not
violate the law, then the sovereign does not have to apply any
penalty, either. If the superior does not apply any penalty,
it is then said that the sovereign does not harm the people.
Hence the saying: "Not only will its gods not harm the
people,[41] but neither will its sages harm the people."

The sovereign and the people do not ruin each other
while men and ghosts do not harm each other. Hence the
saying: "Neither will do harm."

If the people dare not violate the law, then the sovereign
does not have to apply penalties on the one hand nor does
he have to work to the advantage of his own investments
on the other. If the sovereign neither has to apply penalties
nor has to work to the advantage of his own investments,
the people will multiply and prosper. When the people
are multiplying and prospering, their savings and hoardings
will flourish. To have a people who multiply and prosper
and whose savings and hoardings flourish, is called to have
possession of virtue. The so-called cursed person is one
whose soul is gone and whose mind is perturbed. If his
mind is perturbed, he has no virtue. If ghosts did not fall

upon the man, his soul would not go away. If the soul did
not go away, his mind would not be perturbed. To have the
mind not perturbed is called to have possession of virtue.
Therefore, if the sovereign encourages savings and hoardings
and ghosts do not disturb their minds, then all virtue will
go to the people. Hence the saying: "Since neither will
do harm, therefore[42] their virtues will be combined." This
means that the virtues of high and low flourish and in both
cases are combined into the well-being of the people.

The ruler who upholds Tao incurs no hatred from the
neighbouring enemies outside and bestows beneficence upon
the people at home. Verily, who incurs no hatred from the
neighbouring enemies, observes the rules of etiquette[43] when
dealing with the feudal lords; who bestows beneficence upon
the people, emphasizes primary works when administering the
people's[44] affairs. If he treats the feudal lords according to the
rules of etiquette, then warfare will rarely take place. If he

administers the people's affairs by emphasizing their primary
works, then indulgence in pleasures and extravagant
livelihood will stop. Now, horses in general are greatly
useful because they carry armour and weapons and facilitate
indulgence in pleasures and extravagant livelihood. However,
inasmuch as the ruler who upholds the true path rarely
employs armour and weapons and forbids indulgence in
pleasures and extravagant livelihood, the sovereign does
not have to use horses in warfare and drive them back and
forth and the masses of the people never have to employ
horses for transporting luxuries between distant places.
What they devote their strength to, is farms and fields
only. If they devote their strength to farms and fields,
they have to haul dung for fertilizing the land and water for
irrigating it. Hence the saying: "When All-under-Heaven
follows Tao, race-horses are reserved for hauling dung."

On the contrary, if the ruler of men does not uphold
Tao, at home he will misgovern the people and abroad he
will offend the neighbouring states. If he misgoverns the
people, the people will lose their property; if he offend
the neighbouring states, warfare will frequently take place.
If the people lose their property, the cattle will decrease;
if warfare takes place frequently, officers and soldiers will
be exhausted. If cattle decrease, war horses will become
few; if officers and soldiers are exhausted, the army will
be jeopardized. If war horses are few, then even mares[45]
will have to appear on the battle-field; if the army is
jeopardized, then even courtiers will have to march to the
front line. After all, horses are of great use to troops, and
"suburb" means "neighbourhood at hand". Since they

have to replenish the army with mares[46] and courtiers,
hence the saying: "When All-under-Heaven does not
follow Tao, war horses are bred in the suburbs."

When a man has wild desires, his inferences become
confused. When[47] his inferences are confused, his desire
becomes intense. When his desire is intense, the crooked
mind rules supreme. When the crooked mind rules supreme,
affairs go straight[48] to a deadlock. When affairs go straight[49]
to a deadlock, disasters take place. From this viewpoint it
is clear that disasters are due to the crooked mind, which
is in its turn due to submission to desire. As regards
submission to desire, the positive kind would lead obedient
citizens to villainy, the negative kind would lead good persons
to misery. When culprits appear, the ruler will be violated
and weakened. When misery comes, most people will be
harmed. Thus, all sorts of submission to desire either
violate and weaken the ruler or harm the people. To violate
and weaken the ruler and harm the people is, indeed, a
great crime. Hence the saying: "No greater crime than
submitting to desire."

Therefore the saintly men are never attracted to the five
colours[50] nor do they indulge in music; the intelligent ruler
treats lightly amusement in curios and rids himself of
indulgence in beauties. By nature man has neither wool
nor feather. If he wears no clothes at all, he cannot resist[51]

cold. Above he does not belong to the heavens. Below
he is not stuck to the earth. And the stomach and intestines
are what he takes as roots of his life. Unless he eat, he cannot
live. Therefore he cannot avoid having an avaricious
mind. The avaricious mind, unless banished, would cause
one worries. Therefore, the saintly men, if they have
sufficient clothes to resist cold and sufficient food to fill
their empty stomachs, have no worry at all. The same is
not true of the ordinary man. Whether they are feudal
lords or only worth a thousand pieces of gold, their worry
about what they want to get is never shaken off. It is possible
for convicts to receive special pardons; and it happens
occasionally that criminals sentenced to death live on[52] for
some time. Since the worry of those who know no sufficiency
is life-long and inevitable, hence the saying: "No greater
misery than not knowing sufficiency."

Therefore, if avarice is intense,[53] it causes worry. If one
worries, he falls ill. If he falls ill, his intelligence declines.
If his intelligence declines, he loses the ability to measure
and calculate. If he loses the ability to measure and calculate,
his action becomes absurd. If his action is absurd, then
misery will befall him. If misery befalls him, the illness
will turn from bad to worse inside his body. If the illness
turns from bad to worse inside his body, he feels pain. If
misery hangs over him from without, he feels distressed.
The pain and distress that ply out and in[54] would hurt the
invalid seriously. Hurt seriously, the invalid retires and

finds fault with himself. It is due to the avaricious mind
that he retires and finds fault with himself. Hence the saying:
"No greater[55] fault than avarice."

Tao is the way of everything, the form of every principle.
Principles are the lines that complete things. Tao is the
cause of the completion of everything. Hence the saying:
"It is Tao that rules[56] everything."

Things have their respective principles and therefore cannot
trespass against each other. Inasmuch as things have
their respective principles and therefore cannot trespass

against each other, principles[57] are determinants of things
and everything has a unique principle. Inasmuch as everything
has its unique principle and Tao disciplines the
principles of all things, everything has to go through the
process of transformation. Inasmuch as everything has to
go through the process of transformation, it has no fixed
frame. Since everything has no fixed frame, the course of
life and death depends upon Tao, the wisdom of the myriad
kinds conforms to it, and the rise and fall of the myriad affairs
is due to it. Heaven can be high because of it, earth can hold
everything because of it, the Polar Star can have its majesty
because of it, the sun and the moon can make constant
illumination because of it, the five constant elements[58] can
keep their positions constant because of it, all the stars
can keep their orbits right because of it, the four seasons can
control their diverse expressions because of it, Hsien-yüan
could rule over the four directions at his discretion because
of it, Master Red Pine[59] could live[60] as long as heaven and
earth because of it, and sages can compose essays and elaborate
institutions because of it. It was manifested in the wisdom
of Yao and Shunm in the rampancy of Chieh-yü,[61] in the
destruction of Chieh and Chow, and in the prosperity of
T`ang and Wu. Near as you might suppose it to be, it
travels to the four poles of the world. Far as you might
suppose it to be, it always abides by the side of everybody.
Dim as you might suppose it to be, its gleam is glittering.
Bright as you might suppose it to be, its body is obscure.
By its achievement heaven and earth are formed. By its
harmony thundering is transformed. Thus everything in
the world owes it its formation. By nature the inner reality
of Tao is neither restrained nor embodied. It is either soft
or weak according as the occasion is, and is always in
correspondence with principles. Because of it everything
dies. Thanks to it everything lives. Because of it every
affair fails. Thanks to it every affair succeeds. Tao can be
compared to water. Who is drowning, dies as he drinks
too much of it. Who is thirsty lives on as he drinks a proper
amount of it. Again, it can be compared to a sword or a
spear.[62] If the stupid man uses it for wreaking his grudge
upon others, calamities will happen. If the saintly man uses
it for punishing the outrageous, good luck will ensue. Thus,
people die of it, live owing to it, fail because of it, and
succeed on account of it.[63]

Men rarely see living elephants. As they come by the
skeleton of a dead elephant, they imagine its living according
to its features. Therefore it comes to pass that whatever
people use for imagining the real is called "image".[64] Though
Tao cannot be heard and seen, the saintly man imagines its

real features in the light of its present effects. Hence the
saying: "It is the form of the formless, the image of the
imageless."[65]

In general, principles are what distinguish the square
from the round, the short from the long, the coarse from
the fine, and the hard from the brittle. Accordingly, it is
only after principles become definite that things can attain
Tao. Thus, definite principles include those of existence
and extinction, of life and death, and of rise and fall. Indeed,
anything that first exists and next goes to ruin, now lives
and then dies, and prospers at the beginning and declines
afterward, cannot be said to be eternal. Only that which
begins with the creation of heaven and earth and neither
dies nor declines till heaven and earth disappear can be said

to be eternal. What is eternal has neither a changing location
nor a definite principle[66] and is not inherent in an eternal
place.[67] Therefore the eternal cannot be traced as a way.
The saintly man, looking at its mysterious emptiness and
dwelling upon its universal course, forcibly gave it the
name Tao. Only thereafter it can be talked about. Hence
the saying: "The Tao that can be traced as a way is not
the eternal Tao."

Man begins in birth and ends in death. To begin is called
to appear; to end, to disappear. Hence the saying: "Appear
in birth, disappear in death."

The human body is composed of three hundred and sixty
joints with four limbs and nine passages as its important
equipment. Four limbs plus nine passages are thirteen in

number.[68] The motion and the repose of all these thirteen
depend upon life. As they depend upon life, they are said
to be "dependencies". Hence the saying: "There are
thirteen dependencies[69] of life."

As regards death, the thirteen equipments revert to their
original status, and all depend upon death. Therefore, the
dependencies of death are also thirteen. Hence the saying:
"There are thirteen dependencies of life; there are thirteen
dependencies of death."

On the whole, people who live by living life's intensity,
move all the time. When motion is exerted, they incur
losses. If motion does not stop, losses will occur incessantly.
If losses occur incessantly, life will come to an end.
Life's coming to an end is called "death". That is to say,
the thirteen equipments are all avenues to pass into the
realm of death. Hence the saying: "People move to live
in the realm of life. But motion includes all avenues to the
realm of death which are also thirteen in number."[70]

Therefore, the saintly man saves mental energy and
esteems the status of repose. Otherwise, conditions would
become much worse than the harm of bisons and tigers.
True, bisons and tigers have lairs and their motion and
repose come on certain occasions. If you keep away from
their lairs and avoid the occasions of their activities, then
you will be able to evade their harm. However, as people
know bisons and tigers have horns and claws but do not
know everything else has horns and claws, they cannot

evade the harm of the myriad things. How can this be
proved? Well, when seasonal rain is falling in torrents and
wide fields are lonesome and quiet, if you cross mountains
and rivers at dusk or at dawn, the claws and horns of wind
and dew will harm you. When serving the superior, if you
are not loyal or violate prohibitions and decrees imprudently,
the claws and horns of penal law will harm you. When
living in the village, if you take no caution but show hatred
and love at random, the claws and horns of dispute and
quarrel will harm you. If you satiate your appetites without
limitation and never regulate your motion and repose, the
claws and horns of piles and boils will harm you. If you are
habitually fond of applying your self-seeking wisdom and
discarding rational principles, the claws and horns of nets
and traps will harm you. Thus, while bisons and tigers
have lairs and the myriad harms have causes, only if you
can keep away from the lairs and stop the causes, will you
be able to evade their harms.

In general, weapons and armour are for providing against
harm. Who clings firmly to life, though serving in the
ranks, has no mind of grudge and dispute. Without the mind
of grudge and dispute, he finds no place wherein to use the
provisions against harm. This not only refers to the troops
in the wilderness. But it is also concerned with the saintly
man who has no mind to harm anybody when making his
way through the world. If he has no mind to harm anybody,
he will find no harm from anybody. If he finds no harm
from anybody, he need not guard against anybody. Hence
the saying: "When travelling on land, he will not fall a
prey to the bison or the tiger." Likewise, he does not have
to depend on the provisions against harm when walking

through the world.[71] Hence the saying: "When going
among soldiers, he need not fear[72] arms and weapons."
Since he can thus keep away from all kinds of harm, hence
the saying: "The bison finds no place wherein to insert
its horns. The tiger finds no place wherein to put his claws.
Weapons find no place wherein to thrust their blades."

It is the rational principle of heaven and earth that man
takes no precaution against any kind of harm and never is
harmed. As he merges in the course of heaven and earth,
hence the saying: "He does not belong to the realm of
death." Inasmuch as he moves and does not belong to the
realm of death, he is said to be taking good care of life.

Who loves his child, is compassionate to the child. Who
clings firmly to life, is compassionate to himself. Who values
successful accomplishment, is compassionate to tasks. The
compassionate mother, regarding her infant child, always
strives to establish the child's well-being. If she strives to
establish the child's well-being, she will endeavour to rid
the child of calamities. If she endeavours to rid the child
of calamities, her reflection and consideration become
thorough. If her reflection and consideration are thorough,
she will attain the principles of affairs. If she attains the
principles of affairs, she will certainly accomplish her
purposes. If she is certain of accomplishing her purposes,
she will not hesitate in her action. To make no hesitation
is called "bravery". Now, the saintly man deals with the
myriad affairs exactly in the same way as the compassionate
mother considers the well-being of her child. Therefore, he
finds reason for determined action. If he has reason for
determined action, he will not hesitate in transacting affairs
either. Thus, to make no hesitation is called "bravery";
unhesitating action is due to compassion. Hence the saying:
"The compassionate can be brave."

The Duke of Chou said: "If it does not freeze hard in
winter days, grass and trees will not flourish in spring and
summer." Thus, even heaven and earth can neither always
be extravagant nor always be frugal. How much less can
mankind be so? Therefore, the myriad things must have
prosperity and decline, the myriad affairs must have their
rise and fall, the state must have civil and military institutions,
and government must have reward and punishment. For
this reason, if wise men frugally spend their money, their
families will become rich; if the saintly man treasures his

mind, his energy will become abundant; and if the ruler
of men emphasizes the usefulness of his soldiers for military
purposes, his subjects will become numerous. If the subjects
are numerous, the state will become magnificent. From
all these facts there can be inferred the saying: "The
frugal can be magnificent."

In general, anything that has a form can be easily cut and
easily trimmed. How can I prove this? Well, if the thing
has form, it has length; if it has length, it has size; if it
has size, it has a shape; if it has a shape, it has solidity;
if it has solidity, it has weight; and if it has weight, it has
colour. Now, length, size, shape, solidity, weight, and
colour are called principles. As these are fixed, the thing
can be easily cut. Therefore, if you present discussions
first in the government and draw your conclusion from them
later, then[73] thoughtful and planful personages will know
the right decision to make. Likewise, supposing you wanted
to construct squares and circles and followed the compasses
and squares, then the accomplishment of any task would
take its shape. As with everything following the compasses
and squares, thinkers and speakers must inspect and follow
the compasses and squares. The saintly man thoroughly
follows the compasses and squares of the myriad things.
Hence the saying: "They dare not come to the front of
All-under-Heaven."

Thus, if one dare not come to the front of All-underHeaven,
then everything will be done, every achievement
will be accomplished, and his theory will prevail all over
the world. Then, even though he wants not to attain to

high office in government, is it possible? To attain to high
office in government is called[74] to become perfect as chief
vessels.[75] Hence the saying: "Those who dare not come
to the front of All-under-Heaven can become[76] perfect as
chief vessels."[77]

Who is compassionate to his children, dare not stop
giving them clothes and food. Who is compassionate to
himself, dare not go astray from laws and regulations.
Who is compassionate to squares and circles, dare not
discard the compasses and squares. For the same reason,
if one in the face of warfare is compassionate to the rank
and file, he will overcome his enemies in attack; if
compassionate to war implements, he will make the city-walls
hard and firm. Hence the saying: "The compassionate[78]
will in attack be victorious, and in defence firm."

Indeed, who can perfect himself and thoroughly follow
the principles of the myriad things, will eventually live a
heavenly life. A heavenly life refers to the right way of
human nature.[79] The true path of All-under-Heaven leads
to the welfare of living beings. If it is protected with
compassion, everything will be successful. Then it is called
"treasure". Hence the saying: "I have three treasures[80]
which I cherish and treasure."

The so-called Grand Course in the text is the orthodox
way. The so-called hypocrisy[81] is the heretical way. The
so-called by-paths are beautiful decorations. And beautiful
decorations are part of the heretical way. If the palace is
splendid, litigations will become numerous. If litigations
multiply, fields will run waste. If the fields run waste,
treasuries and storehouses will become empty. If treasuries
and storehouses are empty, the country will become poor.
If the country is poor, the folkways will become frivolous
and extravagant. If the folkways are frivolous and extravagant,
professions for earning clothes and food will stop. If
professions for earning clothes and food stop, the people
will have to pretend to genius and embellish falsehood. If
the people pretend to genius and embellish falsehood, they
will use ornaments and gay clothes. To use ornaments
and gay clothes is called "wearing ornaments and gay
clothes".

If litigations are numerous, granaries and storehouses
are empty, and certain people practise frivolity and
extravagance as folkways, then the state will be injured

as though pierced through by sharp swords. Hence the
saying of "carrying sharp swords". Again, those who
pretend to wisdom and genius[82] till they injure the state,
their own families are always rich. Since the private families
are always rich, hence the saying of "having a redundance
of costly articles". If there are such crooks in the state,
then even stupid people will infallibly follow the example.
If they follow the bad example, then small robbers will
appear. From this viewpoint I can see that wherever great
culprits start, there follow small robbers; whenever great
culprits sing, then join the small robbers.

Indeed, the Yü[83] is the head of all musical instruments.
Therefore, once the Yü takes the lead, then follow bells and
harps; once the Yü sounds, then join all other instruments.
Similarly, wherever great culprits start, there sing common
people; wherever common people sing, there join small
burglars. Hence, to wear ornaments and gay clothes, to
carry sharp swords, to be excessive in drinking and eating,
and to have a redundance of costly articles, this is the Yü[84]
of robbers.

Men, whether stupid or intelligent, either accept or reject
things. If reposed and secure, they would know the causes
of misfortune and good luck. Excited by likes and dislikes
and beguiled by obscene objects, they become different and
perturbed. The reason for this is that they are attracted to
external things and perturbed by likes and tastes. In fact,
repose involves the meaning of accepting likes and rejecting
dislikes; security purports the estimation of misfortune
and good luck. Now, they are changed by likes and tastes
and attracted to external things. Since they are attracted to
external things and thereby led astray, hence the saying of
"being uprooted". Such is not the case with the saintly
man, however. Once he sets up his principle of acceptance
and rejection, then though he sees things he likes, he is
never attracted to them. Not to be attracted to them is
said to "be not uprooted". Once he sets up the basis of
devotion, then though there may be things that he likes,

his mind is never thereby moved. Not to be moved is said
to "be not looted".

Sons and grandsons act upon this Tao and thereby
maintain the ancestral halls. The indestructibility of the
ancestral halls means "the everlasting duration of the
sacrificial celebrations".

To accumulate energy is virtue to oneself. To accumulate
property is virtue to one's family. To tranquillize the people
is virtue to the village, to the state, and to All-under-Heaven.
Since one refines his personality and external things cannot
perturb his mind, hence the saying: "Who cultivates it
in his person, his virtue is genuine." By "genuineness"
is meant "firmness of prudence".[86]

Who manages his family affairs, his decision is never
moved by useless things. If this is so, his resources will
be overflowing. Hence the saying: "Who cultivates it in
his family, his virtue is overflowing."

If the squire of the village acts upon this principle,
then homes that have abundance will multiply. Hence the
saying: "Who cultivates it in his village, his virtue lasts
long and spreads wide."

If the governor of the country acts upon this principle,
then villages that have virtue will multiply. Hence the saying:
"Who cultivates it in his country,[87] his virtue is abundant."

If the ruler of All-under-Heaven acts upon this principle,
then the livelihood of the people will always receive his
beneficence. Hence the saying: "Who cultivates it in
All-under-Heaven, his virtue is universal."

If the self-cultivator differentiates the superior man from
the small man by means of this principle, and if the squire
of the village, the governor of the country, and the ruler of
All-under-Heaven, all follow this principle in making a
comprehensive survey of their respective gains and losses,
there can be no single mistake in a myriad cases. Hence
the saying: "By one's person one looks at persons. By
one's family one looks at families. By one's village one
looks at villages. By one's country one looks at countries.
By one's All-under-Heaven one looks at All-under-Heaven.
How[88] do I know that All-under-Heaven is such? Through
IT[89] ."