1.13. CHAP. XIII
Of the NATURAL CONDITION of mankind, as concerning their Felicity, and Misery
NATURE hath made men so equal in the faculties of body and mind as
that, though there be found one man sometimes manifestly stronger in
body or of quicker mind than another, yet when all is reckoned
together the difference between man and man is not so considerable
as that one man can thereupon claim to himself any benefit to which
another may not pretend as well as he. For as to the strength of body,
the weakest has strength enough to kill the strongest, either by
secret machination or by confederacy with others that are in the
same danger with himself.
And as to the faculties of the mind, setting aside the arts grounded
upon words, and especially that skill of proceeding upon general and
infallible rules, called science, which very few have and but in few
things, as being not a native faculty born with us, nor attained, as
prudence, while we look after somewhat else, I find yet a greater
equality amongst men than that of strength. For prudence is but
experience, which equal time equally bestows on all men in those
things they equally apply themselves unto. That which may perhaps make
such equality incredible is but a vain conceit of one's own wisdom,
which almost all men think they have in a greater degree than the
vulgar; that is, than all men but themselves, and a few others, whom
by fame, or for concurring with themselves, they approve. For such
is the nature of men that howsoever they may acknowledge many others
to be more witty, or more eloquent or more learned, yet they will
hardly believe there be many so wise as themselves; for they see their
own wit at hand, and other men's at a distance. But this proveth
rather that men are in that point equal, than unequal. For there is
not ordinarily a greater sign of the equal distribution of anything
than that every man is contented with his share.
From this equality of ability ariseth equality of hope in the
attaining of our ends. And therefore if any two men desire the same
thing, which nevertheless they cannot both enjoy, they become enemies;
and in the way to their end (which is principally their own
conservation, and sometimes their delectation only) endeavour to
destroy or subdue one another. And from hence it comes to pass that
where an invader hath no more to fear than another man's single power,
if one plant, sow, build, or possess a convenient seat, others may
probably be expected to come prepared with forces united to dispossess
and deprive him, not only of the fruit of his labour, but also of
his life or liberty. And the invader again is in the like danger of
another.
And from this diffidence of one another, there is no way for any man
to secure himself so reasonable as anticipation; that is, by force, or
wiles, to master the persons of all men he can so long till he see
no other power great enough to endanger him: and this is no more
than his own conservation requireth, and is generally allowed. Also,
because there be some that, taking pleasure in contemplating their own
power in the acts of conquest, which they pursue farther than their
security requires, if others, that otherwise would be glad to be at
ease within modest bounds, should not by invasion increase their
power, they would not be able, long time, by standing only on their
defence, to subsist. And by consequence, such augmentation of dominion
over men being necessary to a man's conservation, it ought to be
allowed him.
Again, men have no pleasure (but on the contrary a great deal of
grief) in keeping company where there is no power able to overawe them
all. For every man looketh that his companion should value him at
the same rate he sets upon himself, and upon all signs of contempt
or undervaluing naturally endeavours, as far as he dares (which
amongst them that have no common power to keep them in quiet is far
enough to make them destroy each other), to extort a greater value
from his contemners, by damage; and from others, by the example.
So that in the nature of man, we find three principal causes of
quarrel. First, competition; secondly, diffidence; thirdly, glory.
The first maketh men invade for gain; the second, for safety; and
the third, for reputation. The first use violence, to make
themselves masters of other men's persons, wives, children, and
cattle; the second, to defend them; the third, for trifles, as a word,
a smile, a different opinion, and any other sign of undervalue, either
direct in their persons or by reflection in their kindred, their
friends, their nation, their profession, or their name.
Hereby it is manifest that during the time men live without a common
power to keep them all in awe, they are in that condition which is
called war; and such a war as is of every man against every man. For
war consisteth not in battle only, or the act of fighting, but in a
tract of time, wherein the will to contend by battle is sufficiently
known: and therefore the notion of time is to be considered in the
nature of war, as it is in the nature of weather. For as the nature of
foul weather lieth not in a shower or two of rain, but in an
inclination thereto of many days together: so the nature of war
consisteth not in actual fighting, but in the known disposition
thereto during all the time there is no assurance to the contrary. All
other time is peace.
Whatsoever therefore is consequent to a time of war, where every man
is enemy to every man, the same consequent to the time wherein men
live without other security than what their own strength and their own
invention shall furnish them withal. In such condition there is no
place for industry, because the fruit thereof is uncertain: and
consequently no culture of the earth; no navigation, nor use of the
commodities that may be imported by sea; no commodious building; no
instruments of moving and removing such things as require much
force; no knowledge of the face of the earth; no account of time; no
arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual
fear, and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary,
poor, nasty, brutish, and short.
It may seem strange to some man that has not well weighed these
things that Nature should thus dissociate and render men apt to invade
and destroy one another: and he may therefore, not trusting to this
inference, made from the passions, desire perhaps to have the same
confirmed by experience. Let him therefore consider with himself: when
taking a journey, he arms himself and seeks to go well accompanied;
when going to sleep, he locks his doors; when even in his house he
locks his chests; and this when he knows there be laws and public
officers, armed, to revenge all injuries shall be done him; what
opinion he has of his fellow subjects, when he rides armed; of his
fellow citizens, when he locks his doors; and of his children, and
servants, when he locks his chests. Does he not there as much accuse
mankind by his actions as I do by my words? But neither of us accuse
man's nature in it. The desires, and other passions of man, are in
themselves no sin. No more are the actions that proceed from those
passions till they know a law that forbids them; which till laws be
made they cannot know, nor can any law be made till they have agreed
upon the person that shall make it.
It may peradventure be thought there was never such a time nor
condition of war as this; and I believe it was never generally so,
over all the world: but there are many places where they live so
now. For the savage people in many places of America, except the
government of small families, the concord whereof dependeth on natural
lust, have no government at all, and live at this day in that
brutish manner, as I said before. Howsoever, it may be perceived
what manner of life there would be, where there were no common power
to fear, by the manner of life which men that have formerly lived
under a peaceful government use to degenerate into a civil war.
But though there had never been any time wherein particular men were
in a condition of war one against another, yet in all times kings
and persons of sovereign authority, because of their independency, are
in continual jealousies, and in the state and posture of gladiators,
having their weapons pointing, and their eyes fixed on one another;
that is, their forts, garrisons, and guns upon the frontiers of
their kingdoms, and continual spies upon their neighbours, which is
a posture of war. But because they uphold thereby the industry of
their subjects, there does not follow from it that misery which
accompanies the liberty of particular men.
To this war of every man against every man, this also is consequent;
that nothing can be unjust. The notions of right and wrong, justice
and injustice, have there no place. Where there is no common power,
there is no law; where no law, no injustice. Force and fraud are in
war the two cardinal virtues. Justice and injustice are none of the
faculties neither of the body nor mind. If they were, they might be in
a man that were alone in the world, as well as his senses and
passions. They are qualities that relate to men in society, not in
solitude. It is consequent also to the same condition that there be no
propriety, no dominion, no mine and thine distinct; but only that to
be every man's that he can get, and for so long as he can keep it. And
thus much for the ill condition which man by mere nature is actually
placed in; though with a possibility to come out of it, consisting
partly in the passions, partly in his reason.
The passions that incline men to peace are: fear of death; desire of
such things as are necessary to commodious living; and a hope by their
industry to obtain them. And reason suggesteth convenient articles
of peace upon which men may be drawn to agreement. These articles
are they which otherwise are called the laws of nature, whereof I
shall speak more particularly in the two following chapters.