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Supernatural revelations influence governmental policy

This reign witnessed the appearance of revelations or oracle books
(ch'an) that affected government policy. These revelations were a
natural development from the Confucian practise of interpreting visitations
and portents as having a meaning for government policies. The
theory of the five powers as determining history was first elaborated by
Tsou Yen (iv cent. B.C.), and became popular in Confucian circles
through its appearance in the "Great Plan," which became a chapter in
the Book of History. This theory had as one of its consequences the
doctrine that dynasties rise and fall in accordance with the dominating
power. After the Han dynasty had been on the throne for a century
and its virtual collapse during the last years of Emperor Wu's reign,
people accordingly began to speculate what would be the next dynasty.
In 78 B.C., Kuei Hung, who had studied Tung Chung-shu's interpretation
of the Kung-yang Commentary and who was then a minor court official,
interpreted a portent as indicating the end of the Han dynasty and the
appearance of a new dynasty with the surname Kung-yang. He was
executed for treason, but speculation continued. One belief was that
3 × 70 = 210 years was the period a dynasty endured, which era,
counting from 206 B.C., would end in A.D. 4 (cf. 99 A: n. 34.5). In
the reign of Emperor Ch'eng, a certain Kan Chung-k'o from the Ch'i

commandery wrote a book in twelve chapters, which he said was a revelation
from a spirit named the Essence of the Red Lord (Ch'ih-ching-tzu),
by whose power Emperor Kao had killed the serpent blocking his path
(HS 1 A: 7a) and had seated his dynasty on the throne. In this book,
Kan Chung-k'o evidently reasoned, on a calendrical basis, that the Han
dynasty, if it was to continue, must again receive a mandate from Heaven,
and asserted that the Essence of the Red Lord had come down to teach
the dynasty how to secure this mandate. Kan Chung-k'o was thus supporting
the Han dynasty against interpretations like that of Kuei Hung.
Kan Chung-k'o's book seems to have been the first of the "revelations."
(Kuei Hung was later said to have written a book of revelations, which
did not appear until the first century A.D., when a pretender surnamed
Kung-sun appeared, so that this book was probably a forgery.) Liu
Hsiang4a had been asked by Emperor Ch'eng to report on the correctness
of this revelation. He had memorialized that this doctrine was not
classical, and was an attempt to deceive the Emperor and to mislead the
crowd. Kan Chung-k'o was imprisoned, tortured, and died; his disciples
were dismissed from office.

When it was discovered that Emperor Ch'eng had killed his own infant
sons, thus leaving himself without a natural heir, and when sundry
portents occurred, people came increasingly to feel that the Han dynasty
had actually decayed. This opinion was confirmed by the fact that Emperor
Ai was continually ill, with some disease like arthritis, and also
that he had no natural heir. He was told about Kan Chung-k'o's revelation.
The matter was submitted to Liu Hsiang4a's son, Liu Hsin1a, who
again condemned the doctrine as unclassical. Other courtiers, however,
supported this new teaching, and Emperor Ai summoned Kan Chung-k'o's
chief disciples to several audiences. They told the Emperor that he
should change the year-period and take a new title, whereby he would
secure lengthened life and an heir, as well as freedom from his illness, etc.
On July 13, 5 B.C., he followed their advice, taking new, long, and
flowery names.

A month later, the bearers of the revelation, emboldened by their
success, proposed further changes. They now said that the highest
ministers should be dismissed, and those courtiers who had supported the
revelation should be given the vacant positions. That was too much for
the ministers. Emperor Ai's illness had not improved, so that the supporters
of the revelation could not point to any verification of their
promises. The Emperor was persuaded that the revelation was groundless;
he rescinded his edict and committed Kan Chung-k'o's disciples to
the officials; these disciples were sentenced for having deceived the Emperor,

an inhuman crime, and were executed. This incident marks the
first important influence upon government policies by revelations, which
were to play such a large part in the reign of Wang Mang and later times.