SECTION FIRST.
System of Cosmological Ideas.
That We may be able to enumerate with systematic precision these
ideas according to a principle, we must remark, in the first place,
that it is from the understanding alone that pure and transcendental
conceptions take their origin; that the reason does not properly
give birth to any conception, but only frees the conception of the
understanding from the unavoidable limitation of a possible
experience, and thus endeavours
to raise it above the empirical,
though it must still be in connection with it. This happens from the
fact that, for a given conditioned, reason demands absolute totality
on the side of the conditions (to which the understanding submits
all phenomena), and thus makes of the category a transcendental
idea. This it does that it may be able to give absolute completeness
to the empirical synthesis, by continuing it to the unconditioned
(which is not to be found in experience, but only in the idea). Reason
requires this according to the principle,
If the conditioned is
given the whole of the conditions, and consequently the absolutely
unconditioned, is also given, whereby alone the former was possible.
First, then, the transcendental ideas are properly nothing but
categories elevated to the unconditioned; and they may be arranged
in a table according to the titles of the latter. But,
secondly, all
the categories are not available for this purpose, but only those in
which the synthesis constitutes a series— of conditions subordinated
to, not co—ordinated with, each other. Absolute totality is required
of reason only in so far as concerns the ascending series of the
conditions of a conditioned; not, consequently, when the question
relates to the descending series of consequences, or to the
aggregate of the co—ordinated conditions of these consequences. For,
in relation to a given conditioned, conditions are presupposed and
considered to be given along with it. On the other hand, as the
consequences do not render possible their conditions, but rather
presuppose them— in the consideration of the procession of
consequences (or in the descent from the given condition to the
conditioned), we may be quite unconcerned whether the series ceases or
not; and their totality is not a necessary demand of reason.
Thus we cogitate— and necessarily— a given time completely elapsed
up to a given moment, although that time is not determinable by us.
But as regards time future, which is not the condition of arriving
at the present, in order to conceive it; it is quite indifferent
whether we consider future time as ceasing at some point, or as
prolonging itself to infinity. Take, for example, the series m, n,
o, in which n is given as conditioned in relation to m, but at the
same time as the condition of o, and let the series proceed upwards
from the conditioned n to m (l, k, i, &c.), and also downwards from
the condition n to the conditioned o (p, q, r, &c.)— I must
presuppose the former series, to be able to consider n as given, and n
is according to reason (the totality of conditions) possible only by
means of that series. But its possibility does not rest on the
following series o, p, q, r, which for this reason cannot be
regarded as given, but only as capable of being given (
dabilis).
I shall term the synthesis of the series on the side of the
conditions— from that nearest to the given phenomenon up to the more
remote — regressive; that which proceeds on the side of the
conditioned, from the immediate consequence to the more remote, I
shall call the progressive synthesis. The former proceeds in
antecedentia, the latter in consequentia. The cosmological ideas are
therefore occupied with the totality of the regressive synthesis,
and proceed in antecedentia, not in consequentia. When the latter
takes place, it is an arbitrary and not a necessary problem of pure
reason; for we require, for the complete understanding of what is
given in a phenomenon, not the consequences which succeed, but the
grounds or principles which precede.
In order to construct the table of ideas in correspondence with
the table of categories, we take first the two primitive quanta of all
our intuitions, time and space. Time is in itself a series (and the
formal condition of all series), and hence, in relation to a given
present, we must distinguish a priori in it the antecedentia as
conditions (time past) from the consequentia (time future).
Consequently, the transcendental idea of the absolute totality of
the series of the conditions of a given conditioned, relates merely to
all past time. According to the idea of reason, the whole past time,
as the condition of the given moment, is necessarily cogitated as
given. But, as regards space, there exists in it no distinction
between progressus and regressus; for it is an aggregate and not a
series— its parts existing together at the same time. I can consider a
given point of time in relation to past time only as conditioned,
because this given moment comes into existence only through the past
time rather through the passing of the preceding time. But as the
parts of space are not subordinated, but co—ordinated to each other,
one part cannot be the condition of the possibility of the other;
and space is not in itself, like time, a series. But the synthesis
of the manifold parts of space— (the syntheses whereby we apprehend
space)— is nevertheless successive;
it takes place, therefore, in
time, and contains a series. And as in this series of aggregated
spaces (for example, the feet in a rood), beginning with a given
portion of space, those which continue to be annexed form the
condition of the limits of the former— the measurement of a space must
also be regarded as a synthesis of the series of the conditions of a
given conditioned. It differs, however, in this respect from that of
time, that the side of the conditioned is not in itself
distinguishable from the side of the condition; and, consequently,
regressus and
progressus in space seem to be identical. But,
inasmuch as one part of space is not given, but only limited, by and
through another, we must also consider every limited space as
conditioned, in so far as it presupposes some other space as the
condition of its limitation, and so on. As regards limitation,
therefore, our procedure in space is also a
regressus, and the
transcendental idea of the absolute totality of the synthesis in a
series of conditions applies to space also; and I am entitled to
demand the absolute totality of the phenomenal synthesis in space as
well as in time. Whether my demand can be satisfied is a question to
be answered in the sequel.
Secondly, the real in space— that is, matter— is conditioned. Its
internal conditions are its parts, and the parts of parts its remote
conditions; so that in this case we find a regressive synthesis, the
absolute totality of which is a demand of reason. But this cannot be
obtained otherwise than by a complete work of parts, whereby the
real in matter becomes either nothing or that which is not matter,
that is to say, the simple.* Consequently we find here also a series of
conditions and a progress to the unconditioned.
Thirdly, as regards the categories of a real relation between
phenomena, the category of substance and its accidents is not suitable
for the formation of a transcendental idea; that is to say, reason has
no ground, in regard to it, to proceed regressively with conditions.
For accidents (in so far as they inhere in a substance) are
co—ordinated with each other, and do not constitute a series. And,
in relation to substance, they are not properly subordinated to it,
but are the mode of existence of the substance itself. The
conception of the substantial might nevertheless seem to be an idea of
the transcendental reason. But, as this signifies nothing more than
the conception of an object in general, which subsists in so far as
we
cogitate in it merely a transcendental subject without any predicates;
and as the question here is of an unconditioned in the series of
phenomena— it is clear that the substantial can form no member
thereof. The same holds good of substances in community, which are
mere aggregates and do not form a series. For they are not
subordinated to each other as conditions of the possibility of each
other; which, however, may be affirmed of spaces, the limits of
which are never determined in themselves, but always by some other
space. It is, therefore, only in the category of
causality that we can
find a series of causes to a given effect, and in which we ascend from
the latter, as the conditioned, to the former as the conditions, and
thus answer the question of reason.
Fourthly, the conceptions of the possible, the actual, and the
necessary do not conduct us to any series— excepting only in so far as
the contingent in existence must always be regarded as conditioned,
and as indicating, according to a law of the understanding, a
condition, under which it is necessary to rise to a higher, till in
the totality of the series, reason arrives at unconditioned necessity.
There are, accordingly, only four cosmological ideas,
corresponding with the four titles of the categories. For we can
select only such as necessarily furnish us with a series in the
synthesis of the manifold.
We must here remark, in the first place, that the idea of
absolute
totality relates to nothing but the exposition of
phenomena, and
therefore not to the pure conception of a totality of things.
Phenomena are here, therefore, regarded as given, and reason
requires the absolute completeness of the conditions of their
possibility, in so far as these conditions constitute a series—
consequently an absolutely (that is, in every respect) complete
synthesis, whereby a phenomenon can be explained according to the laws
of the understanding.
Secondly, it is properly the unconditioned alone that reason seeks
in this serially and regressively conducted synthesis of conditions.
It wishes, to speak in another way, to attain to completeness in the
series of premisses, so as to render it unnecessary to presuppose
others. This unconditioned is always contained in the absolute
totality of the series, when we endeavour to form a representation
of it in thought. But this absolutely complete synthesis is itself but
an idea; for it is impossible, at least before hand, to know whether
any such synthesis is possible in the case of phenomena. When we
represent all existence in thought by means of pure conceptions of the
understanding, without any conditions of sensuous intuition, we may
say with justice that for a given conditioned the whole series of
conditions subordinated to each other is also given; for the former is
only given through the latter. But we find in the case of phenomena
a particular limitation of the mode in which conditions are given,
that is, through the successive synthesis of the manifold of
intuition, which must be complete in the regress. Now whether this
completeness is sensuously possible, is a problem. But the idea of
it lies in the reason— be it possible or impossible to connect with
the idea adequate empirical conceptions. Therefore, as in the absolute
totality of the regressive synthesis of the manifold in a phenomenon
(following the guidance of the categories, which represent it as a
series of conditions to a given conditioned) the unconditioned is
necessarily contained— it being still left unascertained whether and
how this totality exists; reason sets out from the idea of totality,
although its proper and final aim is the unconditioned — of the whole
series, or of a part thereof.
This unconditioned may be cogitated— either as existing only in
the entire series, all the members of which therefore would be without
exception conditioned and only the totality
absolutely
unconditioned— and in this case the
regressus is called infinite; or
the absolutely unconditioned is only a part of the series, to which
the other members are subordinated, but which Is not itself
submitted to any other condition.
* In the former case the series is
a parte priori unlimited (without beginning), that is, infinite, and
nevertheless completely given. But the regress in it is never
completed, and can only be called
potentially infinite. In the
second case there exists a first in the series. This first is
called, in relation to past time, the
beginning of the world; in
relation to space, the
limit of the world; in relation to the parts of
a given limited whole, the simple; in relation to causes, absolute
spontaneity (liberty); and in relation to the existence of
changeable things, absolute
physical necessity.
[*]
The absolute totality of the series of conditions to a given
conditioned is always unconditioned; because beyond it there exist
no other conditions, on which it might depend. But the absolute
totality of such a series is only an idea, or rather a problematical
conception, the possibility of which must be investigated—
particularly in relation to the mode in which the unconditioned, as
the transcendental idea which is the real subject of inquiry, may be
contained therein.
We possess two expressions, world and nature, which are generally
interchanged. The first denotes the mathematical total of all
phenomena and the totality of their synthesis— in its progress by
means of composition, as well as by work. And the world is
termed nature,* when it is regarded as a dynamical whole— when our
attention is not directed to the aggregation in space and time, for
the purpose of cogitating it as a quantity, but to the unity in the
existence of phenomena. In this case the condition of that which
happens is called a cause; the unconditioned causality of the cause in
a phenomenon is termed liberty; the conditioned cause is called in a
more limited sense a natural cause. The conditioned in existence is
termed contingent, and the unconditioned necessary.
The
unconditioned necessity of phenomena may be called
natural necessity.
[*]
Nature, understood adjective (formaliter), signifies the complex of
the determinations of a thing, connected according to an internal
principle of causality. On the other hand, we understand by nature,
substantive (materialiter), the sum total of phenomena, in so far as
they, by virtue of an internal principle of causality, are connected
with each other throughout. In the former sense we speak of the nature
of liquid matter, of fire, &c., and employ the word only adjective;
while, if speaking of the objects of nature, we have in our minds
the idea of a subsisting whole.
The ideas which we are at present engaged in discussing I have
called cosmological ideas; partly because by the term world is
understood the entire content of all phenomena, and our ideas are
directed solely to the unconditioned among phenomena; partly also,
because world, in the transcendental sense, signifies the absolute
totality of the content of existing things, and we are directing our
attention only to the completeness of the synthesis— although,
properly, only in regression. In regard to the fact that these ideas
are all transcendent. and, although they do not transcend phenomena as
regards their mode, but are concerned solely with the world of sense
(and not with noumena), nevertheless carry their synthesis to a degree
far above all possible experience— it still seems to me that we can,
with perfect propriety, designate them cosmical conceptions. As
regards the distinction between the mathematically and the dynamically
unconditioned which is the aim of the regression of the synthesis, I
should call the two former, in a more limited signification,
cosmical conceptions, the remaining two transcendent physical
conceptions. This distinction does not at present seem to be of
particular importance, but we shall afterwards find it to be of some
value.
