Section 55. (d) Illusions of Memory.
Memory illusion, or paramnesia, consists in the illusory opinion
of having experienced, seen, or heard something, although there
has been no such experience, vision, or sound. It is the more important
in criminal law because it enters unobtrusively and unnoticed
into the circle of observation, and not directly by means
of a demonstrated mistake. Hence, it is the more difficult to discover
and has a disturbing influence which makes it very hard to
perceive the mistakes that have occurred in consequence of it.
It may be that Leibnitz meant paramnesia with his "perceptiones
insensibiles." Later, Lichtenberg must have had it in mind when
he repeatedly asserted that he must have been in the world once
before, inasmuch as many things seemed to him so familiar, although,
at the time, he had not yet experienced them. Later on, Jessen
concerned himself with the question, and
Sander[1] asserts him to
have been the first. According to Jessen, everybody is familiar
with the phenomenon in which the sudden impression occurs, that
what is experienced has already been met with before so that the
future might be predicted. Langwieser asserts that one always
has the sensation that the event occurred a long time ago, and Dr.
Karl Neuhoff finds that his sensation is accompanied with unrest
and contraction. The same thing is discussed by many other
authors.
[2]
Various explanations have been offered. Wigand and Maudsley
think they see in paramnesia a simultaneous functioning of both
relations. Anje believes that illusory memory depends on the
differentiation which sometimes occurs between perception and
coming-into-consciousness. According to Külpe, these are the
things that Plato interpreted in his doctrine of pre-existence.
Sully,[3] in his
book on illusions, has examined the problem most
thoroughly and he draws simple conclusions. He finds that vivacious
children often think they have experienced what is told them. This,
however, is retained in the memory of the adult, who continues to
think that he has actually experienced it. The same thing is true
when children have intensely desired anything. Thus the
child-stories given us by Rousseau, Goethe, and De Quincey, must come
from the airy regions of the dream life or from waking revery, and
Dickens has dealt with this dream life in "David Copperfield."
Sully adds, that we also generate illusions of memory when we assign
to experiences false dates, and believe ourselves to have felt, as
children, something we experienced later and merely set back into
our childhood.
So again, he reduces much supposed to have been heard, to things
that have been read. Novels may make such an impression that
what has been read or described there appears to have been really
experienced. A name or region then seems to be familiar because
we have read of something similar.
It will perhaps be proper not to reduce all the phenomena of
paramnesia to the same conditions. Only a limited number of them
seem to be so reducible. Impressions often occur which one is
inclined to attribute to illusory memory, merely to discover later
that they were real but unconscious memory; the things had been
actually experienced and the events had been forgotten. So, for
example, I visit some region for the first time and get the impression
that I have seen it before, and since this, as a matter of fact, is not
the case, I believe myself to have suffered from an illusion of memory.
Later, I perceive that perhaps in early childhood I had really been
in a country that resembled this one. Thus my memory was really
correct; I had merely forgotten the experience to which it referred.
Aside from these unreal illusions of memory, many, if not all
others, are explicable, as Sully indicates, by the fact that something
similar to what has been experienced, has been read or heard, while
the fact that it has been read or heard is half forgotten or has sunk
into the subconsciousness. Only the sensation has remained, not
the recollection that it was read, etc. Another part of this phenomenon
may possibly be explained by vivid dreams, which also leave
strong impressions without leaving the memory of their having
been dreams. Whoever is in the habit of dreaming vividly will
know how it is possible to have for days a clear or cloudy feeling
of the discovery of something excellent or disturbing, only to find
out later that there has been no real experience, only a dream. Such
a feeling, especially the memory of things seen or heard in dreams,
may remain in consciousness. If, later, some similar matter is really
met with, the sensation may appear as a past
event.[4] This is all
the easier since dreams are never completely rigid, but easily modeled
and adaptable, so that if there is the slightest approximation to
similarity, memory of a dream lightly attaches itself to real experience.
All this may happen to anybody, well or ill, nervous or stolid.
Indeed, Kräpelin asserts that paramnesia occurs only under normal
circumstances. It may also be generally assumed that a certain
fatigued condition of the mind or of the body renders this occurrence
more likely, if it does not altogether determine it. So far as
self-observation throws any light on the matter, this statement appears
to be correct. I had such illusions of memory most numerously
during the Bosnian war of occupation of 1878, when we made our
terrible forced marches from Esseg to Sarajevo. The illusions
appeared regularly after dinner, when we were quite tired. Then
the region which all my preceding life I had not seen, appeared to be
pleasantly familiar, and when once, at the very beginning, I received
the order to storm a village occupied by Turks, I thought it would
not be much trouble, I had done it so frequently and nothing had
ever happened. At that time we were quite exhausted. Even when
we had entered the otherwise empty village this extraordinary
circumstance did not impress me, and I thought that the inside of
a village always looked like that—although I had never before
seen such a Turkish street-hotel "in nature" or pictured.
Another mode of explanation may be mentioned, i. e., explanation
by heredity. Hering[5] and
Sully have dealt with it. According to
the latter, especially, we may think that we have undergone some
experience that really belongs to some ancestor. Sully believes
that this contention can not be generically contradicted because a
group of skilled activities (nest-building, food-seeking, hiding from
the enemy, migration, etc.) have been indubitably inherited from
the animals, but on the other hand, that paramnesia is inherited
memory can be proved only with, e. g., a child which had been
brought up far from the sea but whose parents and grandparents
had been coast-dwellers. If that child should at first sight have
the feeling that he is familiar with the sea, the inheritance of memory
would be proved. So long as we have not a larger number of such
instances the assumption of hereditary influence is very suggestive
but only probable.
With regard to the bearing of memory-illusions on criminal cases
I shall cite only one possible instance. Somebody just waking from
sleep has perceived that his servant is handling his purse which is
lying on the night-table, and in consequence of the memory-illusion
he believes that he has already observed this many times before.
The action of the servant was perhaps harmless and in no way
directed toward theft. Now the evidence of the master is supposed
to demonstrate that this has repeatedly occurred, then perhaps no
doubt arises that the servant has committed theft frequently and
has had the intention of doing so this time.
To generalize this situation would be to indicate that illusions of
memory are always likely to have doubtful results when they have
occurred only once and when the witness in consequence of paramnesia
believes the event to have been repeatedly observed. It is not
difficult to think of numbers of such cases but it will hardly be possible
to say how the presence of illusions of memory is to be discovered
without the knowledge that they exist.
When we consider all the qualities and idiosyncrasies of memory,
this so varied function of the mind, we must wonder that its estimation
in special cases is frequently different, although proceeding from
a second person or from the very owner of the questionable memory.
Sully finds rightly, that one of the keenest tricks in fighting
deep-rooted
convictions is to attack the memory of another with regard
to its reliability. Memory is the private domain of the individual.
From the secret council-chamber of his own consciousness, into
which no other may enter, it draws all its values.
The case is altered, however, when a man speaks of his personal
memory. It must then assume all the deficiencies which belong to
other mental powers. We lawyers, especially, hear frequently from
witnesses: "My memory is too weak to answer this question,"
"Since receiving the wound in question my memory has failed,"
"I am already too old, my memory is leaving me," etc. In each of
these cases, however, it is not the memory that is at fault. As a
matter of fact the witness ought to have said "I am too stupid
to answer this question," "Since the wound in question, my intellectual
powers have failed," "I am already old, I am growing silly,"
etc. But of course no one will, save very rarely, underestimate
his good sense, and it is more comfortable to assign its deficiencies
to the memory. This occurs not only in words but also in construction.
If a man has incorrectly reproduced any matter, whether
a false observation, or a deficient combination, or an unskilled
interpretation of facts, he will not blame these things but will assign
the fault to memory. If he is believed, absolutely incorrect conclusions
may result.
[[ id="n55.1"]]
W. Sander: Über Erinnerungstäuschungen, Vol. IV of Archiv
für
Psychiatrie u. Nervenkrankheiten.
[[ id="n55.2"]]
Sommer: Zur Analyse der Erinnerungstäuechungen. Beiträge zur
Psych.
d. Aussage, 1. 1903.
[[ id="n55.3"]]
James Sully: Illusions. London.
[[ id="n55.4"]]
H Gross's Archiv I, 261, 335.
[[ id="n55.5"]]
E. Hering: Über das Gedächtnis, etc. Vienna 1876.