BIBLIOGRAPHY
Pertinent medieval Arabic sources in translation include
al-Ash'arī, Kitāb
al-Luma', trans. R. J. McCarthy (Beirut,
1953);
Averroës, Tahāfut
al-Tahāfut, trans. S. Van Den Bergh
(London,
1953), particularly the 3rd and 17th discussions;
Avicenna, La Métaphysique du Shifā',
French translation
by M. M. Anawati, mimeographed edition (Quebec,
1952),
particularly, Book IV, Ch. 1; al-Ghazālī,
Tahāfut al-Fal
āsifah, trans. S. A. Kamali (Lahore, 1958); Ibn
Khaldūn, The
Mugaddimah, trans. F.
Rosenthal, 3 vols. (New York, 1958;
2nd ed., 1967), Vol. III, Ch. IV,
Sec. 14; al-Khayyāt, Kitāb
al-Intiṣār, reprint of M. Nyberg's Arabic
edition with a
French translation by A. N. Nader (Beirut, 1957); Maimon-
ides, The Guide
of the Perplexed, trans. S. Pines (Chicago,
1966), Chs. 73-76.
A basic historical account of Islamic occasionalism with
a philosophical
discussion defending a Thomistic approach
to causality is M. Fakhry's
Islamic Occasionalism and its
Critique by Averroës and Aquinas (London,
1958). For an
interpretation of Ibn Khaldun's discussion of causality,
see
H. A. Wolfson, “Ibn Khaldun on Attributes and Predes-
tination,” Speculum,
34 (October, 1959), 585-97, reprinted
in H. A.
Wolfson, Religious Philosophy: A Group of Essays
(Cambridge, Mass., 1961). For a detailed discussion of
Ghazali's
attempt at interpreting Aristotelian demonstrative
logic in
occasionalist terms, see M. 
E 
. Marmura, “Ghazali
and
Demonstrative Science,” Journal of the History
of Phi-
losophy,
3 (October, 1965), 183-204. On kalām theories of
free will and ethical value, see
M. Fakhry, “The Mu'tazilite
View of Free Will,”
The Muslim World,
42, 2 (April, 1953),
95-109; G. F. Hourani,
“Two Theories of Value in Medieval
Islam,” The Muslim World,
50, 4 (October, 1960), 269-376;
A. N. Nader,
Le Système Philosophique des
Mu'tazila
(Beirut, 1956); W. M. Watt, Free
Will and Predestination
in Early Islam (London, 1948). For an
interpretation of the
doctrine of kasb differing
from ours that allows a measure
of genuine efficacy in deliberate human
action, see R. M.
Frank, “The Structure of Created Causality
according to
al-Ash'arī,” Studia Islamica,
25 (1966), 13-75. On Islamic
atomism, see S.
Pines, Beiträge zur Islamischen
Atomenlehre
(Berlin, 1936). For the question of a possible
Islamic influ-
ence on Nicolaus of
Autrecourt, see J. R. Weinberg, Nicolaus
of
Autrecourt (Princeton, 1948). For general accounts of
Islamic
theology, see L. Gardet and M. M. Anawati, Intro-
duction à la
Théologie Musulmane (Paris, 1951); D. B.
Macdonald, Development of Muslim Theology, Jurispru-
dence and Constitutional
Theory (New York, 1903), outdated
but still pertinent; W. M.
Watt, Islamic Philosophy and
Theology
(Edinburgh, 1962).
MICHAEL E . MARMURA
[See also Atomism;
Causation; Causation in Law;
God;
Islamic Conception; Necessity;
Neo-Platonism.]
