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Dictionary of the History of Ideas

Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas
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240 occurrences of e
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9. The Institution of Buddhism. The Buddha estab-
lished a religious order which has continued to the
present day as one of the oldest and most influential
orders of religious brethren in the oriental world. The
Buddhist order (saṅgha), and the kindred religion called
“Jainism,” have survived longer than any other institu-
tions. “Saṅgha,” the appellation of the Buddhist order,
means “congregation.” In the days of the Buddha
saṅgha in the political sense meant “republic,” and
saṅgha in the economical sense meant “guild.” So
various ways of managing guilds or republics, such as
decision by voting, secret ballot, etc., were incorpo-
rated in the rules of the Buddhist order.

It is noteworthy that the Buddha organized the order
of nuns also, in addition to that of the monks. Conse-
quently the whole body of the Buddhist order consists
of four kinds of followers: (1) monks (bhikkhu in Pāli,
bhikku in Sanskrit), (2) nuns (bhikkhunī in Pāli,
bhikkunī in Sanskrit), (3) laymen (upāsaka), and (4) lay
women (upāsikā). The central role of the order has
been played by monks in South Asiatic countries and
in China, where monks and nuns spend a celibate life
in monasteries or nunneries.

In Tibet many monks have practiced celibacy; they
belong to the Ge-lug or Yellow Hats sect. But others
(the Nyng-ma or Red Hats sect) live a married life.
In Nepal and Japan some Buddhist leaders are celibate
and follow monastic disciplines, but many are married
and live the life of a householder. Korean priests have
observed celibacy very strictly for a long time, but in
recent years some Korean priests have imitated the
Japanese priests and have married. In an effort to get
rid of everything Japanese, the Korean Government
has been expelling married priests from the temples.

Monks are known as bhikkhus in South Asiatic coun-
tries, this term meaning “one who lives on alms.” In
Burma they are often called “Phongys” (phon means
“great,” gyi means “glory”). In South Asiatic countries
monks are greatly respected and worshipped. Monks,
when saluted, do not return salutation to laymen, even
to kings and prime ministers, according to the tradi-
tional disciplines of their order. They take food, after
seeking alms, which they may do only in the morning.

In Japan, the religious leaders are called by the
Japanese equivalents of “priests,” “monks,” or “minis-
ters,” and are often given the honorary title of “Rever-
end.” The English term bonze is a corruption of the
Japanese word bōzu, which means “the head of a
monastery,” and was formerly an honorary title, but
in the 1960's it came to be used in a derisive sense.

In Buddhism monks and priests are responsible for
the spiritual guidance of laymen, and laymen are re-
sponsible for the support of the religious orders.

In Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos, all Buddhist lay-
men are expected to spend some time in a monastery
receiving instruction in Buddhism; it is possible to be
ordained as a monk and then return to lay life. Some
remain as monks in monasteries for life. In Burma it
is not uncommon for laymen to spend some time in
monasteries, but they do not customarily receive ordi-
nation unless they intend to remain. In all other Bud-
dhist countries, the practice of returning to lay life after
receiving ordination is not usually approved.

The ceremony of ordination according to the rules
of the Book of Discipline (Vinaya) is followed in South
Asiatic countries. According to the Book of Discipline,
a monk is dismissed when he commits one of the fol-
lowing four Major Offences: (1) sexual intercourse, (2)
taking what is not given to him, i.e., theft, (3) claiming
in public that he has already become a Holy Man,
although he has not yet attained that state, and (4)
killing a human being. The rules of discipline in Con-
servative Buddhism were for a long time the custom
in Mahāyāna countries also. However, there was an-
other informal self-vow ordination, practiced by some
Mahāyānists—the Bodhisattva ordination—which be-
came overwhelmingly prevalent in Japan. In Esoteric
Buddhism the ritual of ordination by anointment with
water is followed.

Throughout all the Buddhist world, the Buddhist
community has never been organized around a central
authority which could decree doctrines or practices
which must be observed by all followers. Buddhists
have been comparatively individualistic and unwilling


252

to submit to a rigid authority. Agreement as to the
doctrines to be held and the practices to be followed
has been reached by discussion within the community,
guided by the scriptures accepted as a basis for their
faith. In Southern Buddhism there is great unity, with
the different sects playing only a minor role. In Tibet,
although there are several sects, Buddhists there are
united in most matters. In China the sectarian differ-
ences of the past have blended into one general form.
Some writers say that Buddhism is practically extinct
in Communist China. Only in Japan are there marked
sectarian differences, but the authorities of the extant
sects are not coercive. Collaboration among different
sects is well performed.