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Dictionary of the History of Ideas

Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas
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240 occurrences of e
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The ancients did not distinguish between being alive
and having a soul, which was conceived in various ways
as something that organizes and controls the body.
Lacking optical instruments, they had no concept of
the living cell, nor did they think of flesh or wood as
possibly different from the constituents of nonliving
things. Life was given by the soul, both in animals and
in plants. Biology, as the study of the living, is a modern
concept; when we speak of ancient biology, we mean
the study of the ensouled. At the same time, the differ-
ence between living and nonliving things was less
marked, because the ancients tended to assume that
all matter possesses power and mobility and is quasi-
alive (the assumption that the material world is alive
is known as “hylozoism”).

The early biological conceptions seem to originate
in pre-philosophical reflection upon everyday experi-
ence. A great deal of data was available concerning
husbandry, stockbreeding, hunting, nutrition, medicine
and poisons, childbirth and dying, to which was added
special information from Persian game reserves, from
the wild animals of India, Egypt, and Libya, from the
Babylonian gardens where the fertilization of fig and


230

palm was practiced, from augury and sacrifices, and
from ritual crafts like root-cutting for drugs. From this
variety of data there arose certain common ideas which
can be conveniently grouped under the topics of the
four elements (Earth, Air, Fire, Water), the mysterious
extra element (aether), heredity, species, classification,
and teleology. But these ideas did not acquire precision
until philosophical argument came to sharpen them.
Agriculture and medicine were conducted by tradi-
tional rule of thumb. It was the early philosophers who
used these data to illustrate and justify their own cos-
mological arguments, and thereby evolved biological
theories which were then taken over by the agricultural
and medical writers (especially the Hippocratics). The
theoretical influence therefore ran mostly from philos-
ophy to biology rather than the other way. Zoology
and botany were not separated from cosmology until
Aristotle departmentalized the sciences; and even he
did not set up autonomous principles in biology, but
applied a conceptual framework from his general phi-
losophy. The earlier biological theories therefore need
to be understood in the context of larger physical
theories. Inevitably Greek philosophy is the best place
to study these ideas. Not that the other ancient civili-
zations lacked biological speculation; but we do not
find there any major biological idea that does not also
appear in the richer and fuller Greek discussions.