21.6. 6. Of the Commerce of the Ancients.
The immense treasures of
Semiramis,
[5]
which could not be acquired in a day, give us reason to
believe that the Assyrians themselves had pillaged other rich nations,
as other nations afterwards pillaged them.
The effect of commerce is riches; the consequence of riches, luxury;
and that of luxury the perfection of arts. We find that the arts were
carried to great perfection in the time of Semiramis;
[6]
which is a
sufficient indication that a considerable commerce was then established.
In the empires of Asia there was a great commerce of luxury. The
history of luxury would make a fine part of that of commerce. The luxury
of the Persians was that of the Medes, as the luxury of the Medes was
that of the Assyrians.
Great revolutions have happened in Asia. The northeast parts of
Persia, viz., Hyrcania, Margiana, Bactria, &c., were formerly full
of flourishing cities,
[7]
which are now no more; and the north of this
empire,
[8]
that is, the isthmus which separates the Caspian and the
Euxine Seas, was covered with cities and nations, which are now
destroyed.
Eratosthenes and Aristobulus
[9]
learned from Patroclus
[10]
that the
merchandise of India passed by the Oxus into the sea of Pontus. Marcus
Varro
[11]
tells us that at the time when Pompey commanded against
Mithridates, they were informed that people went in seven days from
India to the country of the Bactrians, and to the river Icarus, which
falls into the Oxus; that by this method they were able to bring the
merchandise of India across the Caspian Sea, and to enter the mouth of
Cyrus; whence it was only five days' passage to the Phasis, a river that
discharges itself into the Euxine Sea. There is no doubt but it was by
the nations inhabiting these several countries that the great empires of
the Assyrians, Medes, and Persians had communication with the most
distant parts of the east and west.
An entire stop is now put to this communication. All these countries
have been laid waste by the Tartars,
[12]
and are still infested by this
destructive nation. The Oxus no longer runs into the Caspian Sea; the
Tartars, for some private reasons, have changed its course, and it now
loses itself in the barren sands.
[13]
The Jaxartes, which was formerly a barrier between the polite and
barbarous nations, has had its course turned in the same manner by the
Tartars, and it no longer empties itself into the sea.
[14]
Seleucus Nicator formed the project of joining the Euxine to the
Caspian Sea.
[15]
This project, which would have greatly facilitated the
commerce of those days, vanished at his death.
[16]
We are not certain it
could have been executed in the isthmus which separates the two seas.
This country is at present very little known; it is depopulated, and
full of forests; however, water is not wanting, for an infinite number
of rivers roll into it from Mount Caucasus; but as this mountain forms
the north of the isthmus, and extends like two arms
[17]
towards the
south, it would have been a grand obstacle to such an enterprise,
especially in those times, when they had not the art of making sluices.
It may be imagined that Seleucus would have joined the two seas in
the very place where Peter I has since joined them; that is, in that
neck of land where the Tanais approaches the Volga; but the north of the
Caspian Sea was not then discovered.
While the empires of Asia enjoyed the commerce of luxury, the
Tyrians had the commerce of economy, which they extended throughout the
world. Bochard has employed the first book of his Canaan in enumerating
all the colonies which they sent into all the countries bordering upon
the sea; they passed the pillars of Hercules, and made establishments on
the coasts of the ocean.
[18]
In those times their pilots were obliged to follow the coasts, which
were, if I may so express myself, their compass. Voyages were long and
painful. The laborious voyage of Ulysses has been the fruitful subject
of the finest poem in the world, next to that which alone has the
preference.
The little knowledge which the greatest part of the world had of
those who were far distant from them favoured the nations engaged in the
economical commerce. They managed trade with as much obscurity as they
pleased; they had all the advantages which the most intelligent nations
could take over the most ignorant.
The Egyptians — a people who by their religion and their manners
were averse to all communication with strangers — had scarcely at that
time any foreign trade. They enjoyed a fruitful soil and great plenty.
Their country was the Japan of those times; it possessed everything
within itself.
So little jealous were these people of commerce, that they left that
of the Red Sea to all the petty nations that had any harbours in it.
Here they suffered the Idumeans, the Syrians and the Jews to have
fleets. Solomon employed in this navigation the Tyrians, who knew those
seas.
[19]
Josephus
[20]
says that this nation, being entirely employed in
agriculture, knew little of navigation: the Jews, therefore, traded only
occasionally in the Red Sea. They took from the Idumeans Eloth and
Eziongeber, from whom they received this commerce; they lost these two
cities, and with them lost this commerce.
It was not so with the Phoenicians: theirs was not a commerce of
luxury; nor was their trade owing to conquest; their frugality, their
abilities, their industry, their perils, and the hardships they
suffered, rendered them necessary to all the nations of the world.
Before Alexander, the people bordering on the Red Sea traded only in
this sea, and in that of Africa. The astonishment which filled the globe
at the discovery of the Indian Sea, under that conqueror, is a
sufficient proof of this. I have observed
[21]
that bullion was always
carried to the Indies, and never any brought thence; now the Jewish
fleets, which brought gold and silver by the way of the Red Sea,
returned from Africa, and not from the Indies.
[22]
Besides, this navigation was made on the eastern coast of Africa;
for the state of navigation at that time is a convincing proof that they
did not sail to a very distant shore.
I am not ignorant that the fleets of Solomon and Jehoshaphat
returned only every three years; but I do not see that the time taken up
in the voyage is any proof of the greatness of the distance.
Pliny and Strabo inform us that the junks of India and the Red Sea
were twenty days in performing a voyage which a Greek or Roman vessel
would accomplish in seven.
[23]
In this proportion, a voyage of one year,
made by the fleets of Greece or Rome, would take very nearly three when
performed by those of Solomon. Two ships of unequal swiftness do not
perform their voyage in a time proportionate to their swiftness.
Slowness is frequently the cause of much greater slowness. When it
becomes necessary to follow the coast, and to be incessantly in a
different position, when they must wait for a fair wind to get out of a
gulf, and for another to proceed, a good sailor takes the advantage of
every favourable moment, while the other still continues in a difficult
situation, and waits many days for another change.
The slowness of the Indian vessels, which in an equal time could
make but the third of the way of those of the Greeks and Romans, may be
explained by what we every day see in our modern navigation. The Indian
vessels, which were built with a kind of sea-rushes, drew less water
than those of Greece and Rome, which were of wood and joined with iron.
We may compare these Indian vessels to those at present made use of
in ports of little depth of water. Such are those of Venice, and even of
all Italy in general.
[24]
of the Baltic, and of the province of
Holland.
[25]
Their ships, which ought to be able to go in and out of
port, are built round and broad at the bottom; while those of other
nations, who have good harbours, are formed to sink deep into the water.
This mechanism renders these last-mentioned vessels able to sail much
nearer the wind; while the first can hardly sail, except the wind be
nearly in the poop. A ship that sinks deep into the water sails towards
the same side with almost every wind; this proceeds from the resistance
which the vessel, while driven by the wind, meets with from the water,
from which it receives a strong support; and from the length of the
vessel which presents its side to the wind, while, from the form of the
helm, the prow is turned to the point proposed; so that she can sail
very near the wind, or, in other words, very near the point whence the
wind blows. But when the hull is round and broad at the bottom, and
consequently draws little water, it no longer finds this steady support;
the wind drives the vessel, which is incapable of resistance, and can
run them but with a small variation from the point opposite to the wind.
Whence it follows that broad-bottomed vessels are longer in performing
voyages.
1. They lose much time in waiting for the wind, especially if they
are obliged frequently to change their course, 2. They sail much slower,
because not having a proper support from a depth of water, they cannot
carry so much sail. If this be the case at a time when the arts are
everywhere known, at a time when art corrects the defects of nature, and
even of art itself; if at this time, I say, we find this difference, how
great must that have been in the navigation of the ancients?
I cannot yet leave this subject. The Indian vessels were small, and
those of the Greeks and Romans, if we except those machines built for
ostentation, much less than ours. Now, the smaller the vessel the
greater danger it encounters from foul weather. A tempest that would
swallow up a small vessel would only make a large one roll. The more one
body surpasses another in size, the more its surface is relatively
small. Whence it follows that in a small ship there is a less
proportion, that is, a greater difference in respect to the surface of
the vessel, compared with the weight or lading she can carry, than in a
large one. We know that it is a pretty general practice to make the
weight of the lading equal to that of half the water the vessel could
contain. Suppose a vessel will contain eight hundred tons, her lading
then must be four hundred; and that of a vessel which would hold but
four hundred tons of water would be two hundred tons. Thus the largeness
of the first ship will be to the weight she carries as 8 to 4, and that
of the second as 4 to 2. Let us suppose, then, that the surface of the
greater is to the surface of the smaller as 8 to 6; the surface of the
latter will be to her weight as 6 to 2e,
[26]
while the surface of the
former will be to her weight only as 8 to 4. Therefore as the winds and
waves act only upon the surface, the large vessel will, by her weight,
resist their impetuosity much more than the small.
Footnotes
[7]
Pliny, lib. vi, cap. 16, and Strabo, lib. xi.
[10]
The authority of Patroclus is of great weight, as appears from a
passage in Strabo, lib. ii.
[11]
Pliny, lib. vi, cap. 17. See also Strabo, lib. xi, upon the passage by which
the merchandise was conveyed from the Phasis to the Cyrus.
[12]
There must have been very great changes in that country since
the time of Ptolemy, who gives us an account of so many rivers that
empty themselves into the east side of the Caspian Sea. In the Czar's
chart we find only the river of Astrabat: in that of M. Bathaisi there
is none at all.
[13]
See Jenkinson's account of this, in the "Collection of Voyages to
the North," vol. iv.
[14]
I am disposed to think that hence Lake Aral was formed.
[15]
Claudius Cæsar, in Pliny, lib. vi. 11.
[16]
He was slain by Ptolemy Ceraunus.
[17]
See Strabo, lib. xi.
[18]
They founded Tartessus, and made a settlement at Cadiz.
[19]
I Kings, 9. 26; II Chron., 8. 17.
[21]
Chapter 1 of this book.
[22]
The proportion between gold and silver, as settled in Europe,
may sometimes render it profitable to take gold instead of silver into
the East Indies; but the advantage is very trifling.
[23]
See Pliny, lib. vi, cap. 22, and Strabo, lib. xv.
[24]
They are mostly shallow; but Sicily has excellent ports.
[25]
I say the province of Holland; for the ports of Zealand are deep
enough.
[26]
That is, to compare magnitudes of the same kind, the action or
pressure of the fluid upon the ship will be to the resistance of the
same ship as, &c.
