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An essay concerning human understanding

  
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[title page]
  
To The Right Honourable Lord Thomas,
  
Epistle to the Reader

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Introduction An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
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Book I Neither Principles Nor Ideas Are Innate
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Book II Of Ideas
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Book III Of Words
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Chapter I Of Words or Language in General
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Chapter II Of the Signification of Words
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Chapter III Of General Terms
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Chapter IV Of the Names of Simple Ideas
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Chapter V Of the Names of Mixed Modes and Relations
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Chapter VI Of the Names of Substances
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Chapter VII Of Particles
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Chapter VIII Of Abstract and Concrete Terms
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Chapter IX Of the Imperfection of Words
  
1. Words are used for recording and communicating our thoughts.
  
2. Any words will serve for recording.
  
3. Communication by words either for civil or philosophical purposes.
  
4. The imperfection of words is the doubtfulness or ambiguity of their signification, which is caused by the sort of ideas they stand for.
  
5. Natural causes of their imperfection, especially in those that stand for mixed modes, and for our ideas of substances.
  
6. The names of mixed modes doubtful.
  
7. Secondly, because they have no standards in nature.
  
8. Common use, or propriety not a sufficient remedy.
  
9. The way of learning these names contributes also to their doubtfulness.
  
10. Hence unavoidable obscurity in ancient authors.
  
11. Names of substances of doubtful signification, because the ideas they stand for relate to the reality of things.
  
12. Names of substances referred, to real essences that cannot be known.
  
13. To co-existing qualities, which are known but imperfectly.
  
14. Thirdly, to co-existing qualities which are known but imperfectly.
  
15. With this imperfection, they may serve for civil, but not well for philosophical use.
  
16. Instance, liquor.
  
17. Instance, gold.
  
18. The names of simple ideas the least doubtful.
  
19. And next to them, simple modes.
  
20. The most doubtful are the names of very compounded mixed modes and substances.
  
21. Why this imperfection charged upon words.
  
22. This should teach us moderation in imposing our own sense of old authors.
  
23. Especially of the Old and New Testament Scriptures.
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Chapter X Of the Abuse of Words
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Chapter XI Of the Remedies of the Foregoing Imperfections and Abuses of Words
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Book IV Of Knowledge and Probability

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1. Words are used for recording and communicating our thoughts.

From what has been said in the foregoing chapters, it is easy to perceive what imperfection there is in language, and how the very nature of words makes it almost unavoidable for many of them to be doubtful and uncertain in their significations. To examine the perfection or imperfection of words, it is necessary first to consider their use and end: for as they are more or less fitted to attain that, so they are more or less perfect. We have, in the former part of this discourse often, upon occasion, mentioned a double use of words.

First, One for the recording of our own thoughts.

Secondly, The other for the communicating of our thoughts to others.

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