2. It is useful first to examine apologism. Apologist
thought is based not only on assumptions as to the
possible but also includes value judgments concerning
the desirable. A statement that, at the present time
old age and death are inevitable, almost always goes
on to make a virtue of necessity. In a curious way,
this concern provides a basis for the optimism of pro-
longevity. Indifference to aging and death would be
much more subversive to prolongevitism. In contem-
porary Western culture, a crisis concerning death
occurs about the age of five; later the problem is sup-
pressed from consciousness. Of pertinence is the con-
cept of “cognitive dissonance”: after reaching an
uncomfortable decision, an individual will subcon-
sciously refashion his beliefs to support its “reason-
ableness.”
In myth and legend, Gilgamesh exemplifies recurrent
apologist ideas; rebellion against mortal fate is futile,
and man should concentrate on immediate enjoyments
of this life. Hellenic apologist themes are provided in
Hesiod: Prometheus is punished directly, and mankind
is chastised by Pandora, who brings a “jar” with old
age and death. Hesiod also presents the legend of
Tithonus, one condemned to suffer the infirmities of
age forever. This theme appears frequently (Juvenal,
Swift, Tennyson, Wilde, A. Huxley). According to
Frazer, comparative folklore indicates the Hebrew
Eden myth originally revolved entirely on immortality,
but the written version is more apologist and concerned
with salvation from evil.
In Greco-Roman philosophy, Epicureanism and
Stoicism emphasize attainment of serenity by develop-
ing a proper attitude towards death. Lucretius argues
that it is childish to believe that the dead suffer. The
key to Epicurean apologism is the “fullness of pleas-
ure”; without belief in progress, there is nothing to
look forward to, and prolongevity is not desirable.
Marcus Aurelius carries Stoicism to an ascetic position,
advising one to think often about death and despise
the body.
The gerontological thought of Aristotle, Galen, and
Avicenna is apologist in tendency. “Innate moisture”
(like the oil of a lamp) burns out, and the body becomes
cold and dry. The cold-dry hypothesis of senescence
is not, of itself, apologist. But in Aristotle's cosmology,
the contrast between decay on earth (four elements)
and the eternal celestial bodies (fifth element) is too
great, so that Galen recoils from the “impiety” of
prolongevitism. Also the teleological bent of Aristotle
leads to the precept that nature does everything for
the best; therefore, Galen asserts old age cannot be
a “disease.” Avicenna's theological commitments in-
cline him to state the physician's role is “not the art
of... securing the utmost longevity possible.”
In religion, Buddhism seems thoroughly apologist,
but there are bases for prolongevity, e.g., Tantrism. As
to Hinduism, Vedanta, and Yoga, most scholars focus
on apologist interpretations, but another can assert
India provides “the best Oriental example of prolon-
gevitism.” Apologist statements in Taoist religion and
philosophy did not prevent the flourishing of a prolon-
gevity school. The Bible is predominantly apologist,
but the Old Testament does value long life on earth
as a reward to the righteous (Job 42:16-17).
Thomas Aquinas' explanation of death blends Aris-
totelianism with Christianity (Summa theologica 1. 3,
qu. 97, art. 1 and 2. 2, qu. 164, art. 1). A supernatural
power bestowed on Adam's soul by divine grace kept
the opposing elements in harmony. After original sin,
the body is abandoned to sexual lust, old age, and death.
Later, some proponents of prolongevity seek to reassert
the rule of mind over body (Godwin, G. B. Shaw). Also
significant for prolongevity is Augustine's theory of
history (The City of God, Book 12, sec. 13-17) as a
meaningful process which involves salvation from
death: “The last enemy to be destroyed is death” (I
Corinthians 15:26).
