University of Virginia Library

CONTENTS
BOOK IV

CHAPTER I

THE PHLOGISTON THEORY IN CHEMISTRY

The substitution of phlogiston for the three "elements," salt, sulphur, and mercury, p. 3—"Mortification" and "revivification" of metals, p. 4—The influence of Boyle's teaching that the atmosphere was not a simple substance, p. 5—George Ernst Stahl and his theory of phlogiston, p. 6—Peculiarities of phlogiston, p. 7—Many complications, and final overthrow of the phlogiston theory, p. 9.

CHAPTER II

BEGINNINGS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY

Chemistry at the beginning of the eighteenth century, p. 11—Stephen Hales and the study of gases, p. 11—Black's studies of carbon dioxide, p. 12—Black's studies continued by Cavendish, p. 13—His discovery that water was formed by the combination of hydrogen and oxygen, p. 14—His discovery of nitrous acid, p. 15—The work of Joseph Priestley, p. 18—His discovery of oxygen, p. 19—His refusal to reject the phlogiston theory, p. 22—The work of Scheele, p. 23—His independent discovery of oxygen, p. 24—His important discovery of chlorine, p. 25—Lavoisier and the foundation of modern chemistry, p. 28.

CHAPTER III

CHEMISTRY SINCE DALTON

John Dalton and the atomic theory, p. 38—Berthollet's refusal to accept it, p. 40—The theory that chemical elements combine in definite proportions championed by Proust, p. 41—Berzelius's acceptance

of Dalton's theory, p. 41—The law of Avogadro, p. 43—Amadeo Avogadro names the compound atoms "molecules," p. 44—Berzelius's studies of "equivalents," p. 44—The establishment of the laws of the specific heat of atoms, and of isomorphism, p. 45—Experiments of Davy in decomposing substances with electricity, p. 46—His famous Bakerian lecture of 1806, p. 48—The theory of binary composition of chemical compounds, p. 53— Urea synthesized in the laboratory by Wöhler, and organic chemistry established, p. 54—Liebig's and Wöhler's studies of compound radicals, p. 55—Revival of Avogadro's law by Gerhardt, p. 57—Investigations of the "valency" of different atoms, p. 57—Ste. Claire Deville's investigations of "dissociation," p. 61—Isomerism proved by Liebig and Wöhler, p. 62—William Prout's studies of atomic weights, p. 66—Revival of Prout's alleged law by Dumas, p. 67—Mendelèeff's "periodic law," p. 68—The spectroscope perfected by Kirchhoff and Bunsen, p. 69—Daguerre discovers practical photography, p. 70—Draper's application of photography to spectroscopy, p. 70—Observations of the sun and stars by the spectroscope and photographic plate, p. 71—Sir Norman Lockyer's deductions from these observations, p. 71.

CHAPTER IV

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

Albert von Haller, p. 73—His doctrine of irritability, p. 74— Battista Morgagni and morbid anatomy, p. 76—The work of William Hunter, p. 76—John Hunter, p. 78—His study of lymphatics, p. 79—His discovery of the collateral circulation of the blood, p. 81—His operation for aneurism, p. 84—Lazzaro Spallanzani and the study of spontaneous generation, p. 86—His chemical theory of digestion, p. 88—Hunter's studies of digestion, p. 90—The discovery of the function of respiration, p. 92—Erasmus Darwin on vegetable respiration, p. 94—Closing epoch of the eighteenth century, p. 99.

CHAPTER V

NINETEENTH-CENTURY ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Cuvier's "law of co-ordination," p. 102—Bicbat's studies of the "animal systems" and "organic systems" of vertebrates, p. 107— His division of anatomical structures into sets of "tissues," p. 108 —Attempts to improve the compound microscope, p. 109—Wollaston's improvement by making use of plano-convex lenses, p. 110—Sir John Herschel's improvement, p. 111—Lister's experiments with

lenses, p. 112—His paper before the Royal Society detailing his theories and experiments, p. 113—Amici's improved compound microscope, p. 113—The rise of histology, p. 114—The question of the shape of the red corpuscles settled by Lister, p. 114—Robert Brown's discovery of the nuclei of plant cells, p. 115—Schwarm's researches on animal cells, p. 118—Schwarm's famous cell theory, p. 119—Studies in embryology by Von Baer, Miffier, and Carpenter, p. 122—Von Mohl's investigation of the cell contents, p. 123—The studies of protoplasm by De Bary and Max Schultze, p. 125—Von Mohl's discovery of the formation of cells by division of pre-existing cells, p. 126—Virchow's demonstration of the correctness of Von Mohl's theory of cell formation, p. 127—The discovery of hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice by Prout, p. 129—Discovery of glands in the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines, p. 130—Discovery of the function of the various glands and organs that act in the process of digestion, p. 130—Liebig's demonstration that the activities of life are the product of energy due to destructive processes occurring in the ultimate cells, p. 131—Exhaustive studies of the function of the red corpuscles, p. 135— Claude Bernard's studies of the ductless glands, p. 137.

CHAPTER VI

THEORIES OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION

Goethe's studies of the metamorphosis of plants, p. 140—His doctrine that all parts of the flower are modified or metamorphosed leaves, p. 142—Extension of the doctrine of metamorphosis to the animal kingdom by Goethe and Oken, p. 146—Erasmus Darwin and his Botanic Garden, p. 147—His suspicion that different species are modifications of one parent stock, p. 148—The work of Jean Baptiste de Lamarck, p. 150—His conception of the transmutation of species, p. 152—Cuvier's opposition to the transmutation doctrine, p. 153—The term "biology" coined independently by Treviranus and Lamarck, p. 160—The doctrine of transmutation championed by Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, p. 160—Robert Chambers and his Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, p. 162—Darwin begins his work on the doctrine of evolution, p. 166—His studies of variation in different species of domestic animals, p. 168—The years spent in gathering his facts, p. 170—The work of Alfred Russel Wallace, p. 172—The joint papers of Darwin and Wallace before the Linnæan Society, in 1858, p. 173—Darwin's Origin of Species, p. 173—Its effect upon the scientific world, p. 175—Huxley's estimate of Darwin's accomplishment, p. 178—The disputed question of "spontaneous" variations, p. 178—Weismann's objections to the

Lamarckian conception, p. 178—Pouchet's belief in spontaneous generation, p. 180—Pasteur's refutation of the doctrine, p. 180.

CHAPTER VII

EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY MEDICINE

The fame of Hermann Boerhaave as a physician, p. 182—His classification of the different branches of medicine, p. 183—Animists, vitalists, and organicists, p. 184—The "Brunonian system," p. 187—The system of Hahnemann, p. 188—Jenner and vaccination, p. 190—His famous paper on vaccination, p. 194—Reception of the discovery of vaccination in Europe, p. 196.

CHAPTER VIII

NINETEENTH-CENTURY MEDICINE

Corvisart lays the foundation of physical diagnosis, p. 200—Laënec's invention of the stethoscope, p. 201—Piorry's introduction of mediate percussion, p. 203—The work of Hall, Magendic, and Louis in overthrowing "depletive methods" of treatment, p. 203—Renucci's demonstration that the itch mite is the cause of the disease, and the impetus given to the study of parasitic diseases, p. 206—Owen's discovery of the Trichina spiralis, p. 207—Schoenlein's discovery of the cause of favus, p. 208—Dr. Horace Wells's experiment in painless dentistry by means of nitrous oxide, p. 213—Morton's discovery of ether anæsthesia, p. 214—His demonstration at the Boston Hospital, October 16, 1846, p. 214—The claims of Jackson and Longas to priority of the discovery, p. 215—Simpson's discovery that chloroform produces anæsthesia, p. 217—Pasteur's studies of fermentation, p. 217—The studies of micro-organisms by Latour and Schwann, p. 218—Liebig's opposition to the theory that micro-organisms are responsible for fermentation and putrefaction, p. 219—Pasteur proves that micro-organisms cause decay of organic tissues, p. 220—Devaine's discovery that anthrax is caused by bacteria, p. 227—Koch's corroboration of Devaine's discovery, p. 228—Pasteur's experiments settle forever the question of bacilli as the cause of anthrax, p. 228—Lister's discovery of antisepsis, p. 229—Pasteur's experiments with chicken cholera, p. 232—His attenuation of the microbe of anthrax, p. 233—His public demonstration of the protection afforded domestic animals by inoculation of this "virus," p. 238—His inoculations to prevent hydrophobia, p. 240—Behring's discovery of tetanus and diphtheria

antitoxine, p. 241—The paper of Dr. Roux read before the Congress of Hygeine at Buda-Pesth, p. 242—The establishment of serum-therapy, p. 243.

CHAPTER IX

EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Reforms in methods of caring for the insane begun by Rush, Tuke, and Pinel, p. 246—Pinel's liberation of the inmates at the Bicêtre and the Salpêtrière, p. 246—The studies in psychology by Dr. Franz Joseph Gall, p. 247—Desmoulins' discovery that the brain atrophies in old age, p. 248—Sir Charles Bell's discovery of motor and sensory nerves, p. 250—Marshall Hall's observations of reflex action, p. 251—Studies of the nerve tracts by Schwann, Rernak, and others, p. 258—Claude Bernard's demonstration that the sympathetic nerves regulate the blood supply of any part, p. 260—His further discovery of inhibitory nerves, leading finally to complete understanding of superior and subordinate nerve centres, p. 261— Helraholtz's measurement of the speed of nervous impulses, p. 262 —Gustav Fechner's Psychophysik, and the beginnings of physiological psychology, p. 263—Weber's experiments on nerve stimuli, p. 264—Fechner verifies Weber's fundamental law of psychophysics, p. 265—Wundt's studies of sensation, apperception, and Volition, p. 267—Establishment of the laboratory of Physiological Psychology at Leipzig, p. 269—The work of Dr. James Braid on the phenomenon of hypnotism, p. 269—The subject revived by Charcot and Heidenhain, p. 269—Flourens' studies of brain physiology, p. 270—His discovery of the "vital knot," p. 270—Hughlings-Jackson's studies of "brain centres," p. 272—Broca's localization of the centre for speech, p. 272—Localization of motor centres by Ferrier and Munck, p. 274—Method of cutting thin sections of tissues for microscopical examination, by Rolando, p. 277—Studies of the ganglion cells, p. 279—Waller and the study of "trophic centres," p. 279—The histological scheme of Gerlach, p. 281—Golgi's discovery of the process of staining nerve cells, and its application in tracing nerve filaments, p. 282—Cajal's demonstration of independent nerve filaments, p. 283—The importance of this discovery in explaining thought-mechanism, p. 285.

CHAPTER X

THE NEW SCIENCE OF ORIENTAL ARCHEOLOGY

How the "riddle of the Sphinx" was read, p. 287—The Rosetta Stone in the British Museum, p. 289—Decipherment of the Rosetta

Stone by Young and Champollion, p. 290—The "Cedar of Lebanon," p. 291—The restoration of Assyrian sculptures, p. 293—The great library of Asurbanipal, p. 294—How the records were read, p. 297—The work of Sir Henry Rawlinson, p. 299.

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