BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Oriental texts (with the exception of the biblical
ones) quoted above are to be found in J. B. Pritchard,
Ancient Near Eastern Texts, 3 ed. (Princeton, 1968). Pioneer
work on political thinking of the ancient Near East has been
done especially by members of the Oriental Institute of
Chicago. It will be enough to refer to H. and H. A. Frank-
fort, J. A. Wilson, Th. Jacobsen, The Intellectual Adventure
of Ancient Man (Chicago, 1946); reprinted as Before Philos-
ophy (Harmondsworth, 1949); H. Frankfort, Kingship and
the Gods (Chicago, 1948); J. A. Wilson, The Burden of Egypt
(Chicago, 1951); reprinted as The Culture of Ancient Egypt
(Chicago, 1956); C. H. Kraeling and R. M. Adams, eds., City
Invincible (Chicago, 1960); A. L. Oppenheim, Ancient
Mesopotamia (Chicago, 1964); and the collection of essays
by Th. Jacobsen, Toward the Image of Tammuz and other
Essays (Cambridge, Mass., 1970); some of the most impor-
tant essays by Jacobsen are quoted below.
On Oriental political assemblies and related problems see
especially: G. Buccellati, Cities and Nations of Ancient Syria
(Rome, 1967). I. M. Diakonoff, “Die hethitische Gesell-
schaft,” Mitteilungen aus dem Institut für Orientforschung,
13 (1967), 313-66. G. Evans, “Ancient Mesopotamian
Assemblies,” Journal of the American Oriental Society, 78
(1958), 1-11. A. Falkenstein, “La Cité-temple Sumérienne,”
Cahiers d'Histoire Mondiale, 1 (1954), 784-815. G. Fohrer,
“Der Vertrag zwischen König und Volk in Israel,” Zeitschrift
für Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 71 (1959), 1-22. P.
Garelli, Les Assyriens en Cappadoce (Paris, 1963), pp.
171-204; idem, le Proche-Orient asiatique (Paris, 1969),
248-53. R. Gordis, “Democratic Origins in Ancient Israel,”
Alexander Marx Jubilee Volume (New York, 1950), pp.
369-88. O. R. Gurney, The Hittites, 2nd ed. (London, 1966).
Th. Jacobsen, “Primitive Democracy in Ancient Mesopo-
tamia,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 2 (1943), 159-72;
idem, “Early Political Development in Mesopotamia,”
Zeitschrift für Assyriologie, 52 (1957), 91-140. H. Klengel,
“Die Rolle der Ältesten... im Kleinasien der Hethiterzeit,”
Zeitschrift für Assyriologie, 57 (1965), 223-36. S. N. Kramer,
“Gilgamesh and Agga,” American Journal of Archaeology,
53 (1949), 1-18. J.-R. Kupper, S. N. Kramer, et al., articles
on “Vox Populi” in the Ancient Near East, in Revue
d'Assyriologie, 58 (1964). J. L. McKenzie, “The Elders in
the Old Testament,” Analecta Biblica, 10 (1959), 388-406.
S. Moscati, The World of the Phoenicians (London, 1968).
A. L. Oppenheim, “A New Look at the Structure of Meso-
potamian Society,” Journal of Economic and Social History
of the Orient, 10 (1967), 1-16. H. Reviv, “On Urban Repre-
sentative Institutions and Self-Government in Syria-
Palestine in the Second Half of the Second Millennium B.C.,”
Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient, 12
(1969), 283-97. R. N. Whybray, The Heavenly Counsellor
in Isaiah XL, 13-14 (Cambridge, 1971). G. Widengren, “The
Sacred Kingship of Iran,” Numen, Supp. 4 (1959), 242-57.
J. A. Wilson, “The Assembly of a Phoenician City,” Journal
of Near Eastern Studies, 4 (1945), 245. J. A. Wilson et al.,
Authority and Law in the Ancient Orient, Journal of the
American Oriental Society (1954), Supp. 17. C. U. Wolf,
“Traces of Primitive Democracy in Ancient Israel,” Journal
of Near Eastern Studies, 6 (1947), 98-108. R. N. Whybray,
The Heavenly Counsellor in Isaiah XL. 13-14 (Cambridge,
1971).
On Greece and Rome this bibliography is confined to
specific works on freedom of speech. For the history of
freedom in general refer to R. Klein, ed., Prinzipat und
Freiheit (Darmstadt, 1969); H. Kloesel, Libertas (Breslau,
1935); D. Nestle, Eleutheria, Vol. I (Tübingen, 1967); M.
Pohlenz, Diegriechische Freiheit (Heidelberg, 1955); Ch.
Wirszubski, Libertas (Cambridge, 1950); reviewed by A.
Momigliano, Journal of Roman Studies, 41 (1951), 146-53.
Greece and Rome: J. A. O. Larsen, Representative Govern-
ment in Greek and Roman History (Berkeley, 1955). Greece:
A. Andrewes, “The Government of Classical Sparta,” in
Ancient Society and Institutions. Studies Presented to V. E.
Ehrenberg (Oxford, 1966), pp. 1-20. V. Ehrenberg,
“Isonomia,” in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopädie, Suppl.
VII, (1940), 293-301. G. T. Griffith, “Isegoria in the
Assembly at Athens,” in Ancient Society, op. cit., 115-38.
A. H. M. Jones, Sparta (Oxford, 1967). J. A. O. Larsen,
“Cleisthenes and the Development of the Theory of De-
mocracy in Athens,” in Essays in Political Theory: Presented
to George H. Sabine (Ithaca, 1948), pp. 1-16. M. Radin,
“Freedom of Speech in Ancient Athens,” American Journal
of Philology, 48 (1927), 215-20. G. Scarpat, parrhesia
(Brescia, 1964). Rome: T. Bollinger, Theatralis Licentia
(Winterthur, 1969). T. Frank, “Naevius and Free Speech,”
American Journal of Philology, 48 (1927), 105-10. M.
Gigante, Ricerche Filodemee (Naples, 1969). L. Robinson,
Freedom of Speech in the Roman Republic (Baltimore, 1940),
discussed by A. Momigliano, Journal of Roman Studies,
32 (1942), 120-24. Early Christianity: L. J. Engels, Reallexi-
kon für Antike und Christentum (Stuttgart, 1968), 7, 839-77.
W. Jaeger, “parrhesia et fiducia,” in Studia Patristica, I
(Berlin, 1959), 221-39. E. Peterson, “Zur Bedeutungsge-
schichte von Parrhesia,” in Festschrift für R. Seeberg, I
(Berlin, 1929), 283-97. H. Schlier, Theologisches Wörterbuch
zum Neuen Testament (Stuttgart, 1959), 5, 869-84. W. C.
van Unnik, “De semitische achtergrond van parrhesia. in
het Nieuwe Testament,” Mededelingen Nederlandse
Akademie, N.R. 25 (1962), 585-601.
ARNALDO MOMIGLIANO
[See also Constitutionalism;
Democracy; Equality; Free-
dom;
Liberalism; State.]
