Section 3. The Purificatory Theory of the Fire-festivals.
THUS far we have considered what may be said for the theory that at the
European fire-festivals the fire is kindled as a charm to ensure an
abundant supply of sunshine for man and beast, for corn and fruits. It
remains to consider what may be said against this theory and in favour of
the view that in these rites fire is employed not as a creative but as a
cleansing agent, which purifies men, animals, and plants by burning up
and consuming the noxious elements, whether material or spiritual, which
menace all living things with disease and death. 1
First, then, it is to be observed that the people who practise the
fire-customs appear never to allege the solar theory in explanation of
them, while on the contrary they do frequently and emphatically put
forward the purificatory theory. This is a strong argument in favour of the
purificatory and against the solar theory; for the popular explanation of a
popular custom is never to be rejected except for grave cause. And in the
present case there seems to be no adequate reason for rejecting it. The
conception of fire as a destructive agent, which can be turned to account
for the consumption of evil things, is so simple and obvious that it could
hardly escape the minds even of the rude peasantry with whom these
festivals originated. On the other hand the conception of fire as an
emanation of the sun, or at all events as linked to it by a bond of physical
sympathy, is far less simple and obvious; and though the use of fire as a
charm to produce sunshine appears to be undeniable, nevertheless in
attempting to explain popular customs we should never have recourse to a
more recondite idea when a simpler one lies to hand and is supported by
the explicit testimony of the people themselves. Now in the case of the
fire-festivals the destructive aspect of fire is one upon which the people
dwell again and again; and it is highly significant that the great evil against
which the fire is directed appears to be witchcraft. Again and again we are
told that the fires are intended to burn or repel the witches; and the
intention is sometimes graphically expressed by burning an effigy of a
witch in the fire. Hence, when we remember the great hold which the
dread of witchcraft has had on the popular European mind in all ages, we
may suspect that the primary intention of all these fire-festivals was simply
to destroy or at all events get rid of the witches, who were regarded as the
causes of nearly all the misfortunes and calamities that befall men, their
cattle, and their crops. 2
This suspicion is confirmed when we examine the evils for which the
bonfires and torches were supposed to provide a remedy. Foremost,
perhaps, among these evils we may reckon the diseases of cattle; and of
all the ills that witches are believed to work there is probably none which
is so constantly insisted on as the harm they do to the herds, particularly
by stealing the milk from the cows. Now it is significant that the need-fire,
which may perhaps be regarded as the parent of the periodic
fire-festivals, is kindled above all as a remedy for a murrain or other
disease of cattle; and the circumstance suggests, what on general grounds
seems probable, that the custom of kindling the need-fire goes back to a
time when the ancestors of the European peoples subsisted chiefly on the
products of their herds, and when agriculture as yet played a subordinate
part in their lives. Witches and wolves are the two great foes still dreaded
by the herdsman in many parts of Europe; and we need not wonder that he
should resort to fire as a powerful means of banning them both. Among
Slavonic peoples it appears that the foes whom the need-fire is designed
to combat are not so much living witches as vampyres and other evil
spirits, and the ceremony aims rather at repelling these baleful beings than
at actually consuming them in the flames. But for our present purpose these
distinctions are immaterial. The important thing to observe is that among the
Slavs the need-fire, which is probably the original of all the ceremonial
fires now under consideration, is not a sun-charm, but clearly and
unmistakably nothing but a means of protecting man and beast against the
attacks of maleficent creatures, whom the peasant thinks to burn or scare
by the heat of the fire, just as he might burn or scare wild animals. 3
Again, the bonfires are often supposed to protect the fields against hail
and the homestead against thunder and lightning. But both hail and
thunderstorms are frequently thought to be caused by witches; hence the
fire which bans the witches necessarily serves at the same time as a
talisman against hail, thunder, and lightning. Further, brands taken from the
bonfires are commonly kept in the houses to guard them against
conflagration; and though this may perhaps be done on the principle of
homoeopathic magic, one fire being thought to act as a preventive of
another, it is also possible that the intention may be to keep
witch-incendiaries at bay. Again, people leap over the bonfires as a
preventive of colic, and look at the flames steadily in order to preserve
their eyes in good health; and both colic and sore eyes are in Germany,
and probably elsewhere, set down to the machinations of witches. Once
more, to leap over the midsummer fires or to circumambulate them is
thought to prevent a person from feeling pains in his back at reaping; and
in Germany such pains are called "witch-shots" and ascribed to
witchcraft. 4
But if the bonfires and torches of the fire-festivals are to be regarded
primarily as weapons directed against witches and wizards, it becomes
probable that the same explanation applies not only to the flaming discs
which are hurled into the air, but also to the burning wheels which are
rolled down hill on these occasions; discs and wheels, we may suppose,
are alike intended to burn the witches who hover invisible in the air or
haunt unseen the fields, the orchards, and the vineyards on the hillside.
Certainly witches are constantly thought to ride through the air on
broomsticks or other equally convenient vehicles; and if they do so, how
can you get at them so effectually as by hurling lighted missiles, whether
discs, torches, or besoms, after them as they flit past overhead in the
gloom? The South Slavonian peasant believes that witches ride in the dark
hail-clouds; so he shoots at the clouds to bring down the hags, while he
curses them, saying, "Curse, curse Herodias, thy mother is a heathen,
damned of God and fettered through the Redeemer's blood." Also he brings
out a pot of glowing charcoal on which he has thrown holy oil, laurel
leaves, and wormwood to make a smoke. The fumes are supposed to
ascend to the clouds and stupefy the witches, so that they tumble down to
earth. And in order that they may not fall soft, but may hurt themselves
very much, the yokel hastily brings out a chair and tilts it bottom up so that
the witch in falling may break her legs on the legs of the chair. Worse than
that, he cruelly lays scythes, bill-hooks, and other formidable weapons
edge upwards so as to cut and mangle the poor wretches when they drop
plump upon them from the clouds. 5
On this view the fertility supposed to follow the application of fire in the
form of bonfires, torches, discs, rolling wheels, and so forth, is not
conceived as resulting directly from an increase of solar heat which the
fire has magically generated; it is merely an indirect result obtained by
freeing the reproductive powers of plants and animals from the fatal
obstruction of witchcraft. And what is true of the reproduction of plants and
animals may hold good also of the fertility of the human sexes. The bonfires
are supposed to promote marriage and to procure offspring for childless
couples. This happy effect need not flow directly from any quickening or
fertilising energy in the fire; it may follow indirectly from the power of the
fire to remove those obstacles which the spells of witches and wizards
notoriously present to the union of man and wife. 6
On the whole, then, the theory of the purificatory virtue of the ceremonial
fires appears more probable and more in accordance with the evidence
than the opposing theory of their connexion with the sun. 7