University of Virginia Library

VIRGINIA.

SITUATION, BOUNDARIES, AND EXTENT.

Virginia was one of the original thirteen, and is now one of the twenty
four United States of North America, it lies between 36° 31′, and 40° 39′
north latitude; and 6° 35′ west, and 1° 48′ east longitude from Washington
city it is bounded on the north and northeast by Pennsylvania and Maryland,
east by the Atlantic ocean, south by North Carolina and Tennessee,
and west by Kentucky and Ohio, its mean length from east to west is 355
miles, its mean breadth 185 miles, and its horizontal area 65,624 square
miles. The Atlantic bounds Virginia, from the extreme south-eastern angle
of Maryland, to the extreme north-eastern angle of North Carolina, a
distance of 112 miles; North Carolina bounds it on the south, from the Atlantic
west to the Iron Mountains, 340 miles, from this point the boundary
runs along the Iron Mountains in a north-easterly direction, to the northeast
angle of Tennessee, four miles, Tennessee then forms a border to the
Cumberland mountains 110 miles, then Kentucky, along the Cumberland
mountains to the Tug Fork of Sandy river, 110 miles, thence the boundary
runs down this stream to the Ohio 70 miles. The boundary follows the
Ohio from the mouth of Tug Fork of Sandy, to the point at which it emerges
from Pennsylvania, 355 miles; from this it runs south in common with the
western border of Pennsylvania, 64 miles, thence east along its southern
border to the north-western angle of Maryland, 58 miles, from this, south
to the head of the north branch of the Potomac 36 miles, and down the
Potomac to its mouth, 320 miles; it then crosses the Chesapeake Bay, and
runs east, along the southern boundary of Maryland to the Atlantic, 60
miles—presenting an entire outline of 1,635 miles.

Face of the Country—Natural and Political Sections—Virginia
exceeds all of her sister States in territorial extent, and is perhaps the most
strongly marked in her physical features. Like Maryland and North Carolina,
she has her sea and alluvial section, below the head of tide-water; her
middle and hilly section; and her central or mountainous section; but in
Virginia a fourth section must be added, which may be called the western
or Ohio section, its waters emptying into that stream.

These four sections are so distinctly marked in their features as to be recognized
in the fundamental law of the State, and must ever have important
political and moral effects. Adopting the limits indicated in the new constitution,
these four sections contain as follows, viz. First—The section
from the sea coast to the head of tide-water, thirty-six counties, and three
towns, to wit: Accomac, Caroline, Chesterfield, Charles City, Essex, Elizabeth
City, Fairfax, Greensville, Gloucester, Hanover, Henrico, Isle of
Wight, James City, King and Queen, King William, King George, Lancaster,
Mathews, Middlesex, Nansemond, New Kent, Northumberland,
Northampton, Norfolk, Princess Anne, Prince George, Prince William,
Richmond, Southampton, Spottsylvania, Stafford, Surry, Sussex, Warwick,

Westmoreland, York, and the city of Richmond, borough of Norfolk, and
town of Petersburg; which are all together entitled to 36 Representatives
in the House of Delegates. Second—The territory stretching from the
head of tide-water to the Blue Ridge, contains 30 counties, to wit. Albemarle,
Amelia, Amherst, Bedford, Buckingham, Brunswick, Campbell,
Charlotte, Cumberland, Culpeper, Dinwiddie, Fauquier, Fluvanna, Franklin,
Goochland, Henry, Halifax, Loudon, Louisa, Lunenburg, Madison,
Mecklenburg, Nelson, Nottoway, Orange, Patrick, Pittsylvania, Powhatan,
Prince Edward, and Rappahannock, which together have 42 Representatives
in the House of Delegates. Third—The Valley section contains 15 counties,
to wit Augusta, Alleghany, Bath, Berkley, Bottetourt, Frederick,
Hampshire, Hardy, Jefferson, Morgan, Page, Pendleton, Rockingham,
Rockbridge, and Shenandoah, which together elect 25 members of the House
of Delegates. Fourth—The Trans-Alleghany, or western section, contains
30 counties, to wit: Brooke, Cabell, Fayette, Floyd, Grayson, Greenbrier,
Giles, Harrison, Jackson, Montgomery, Monongalia, Kanawha, Lee, Lewis,
Logan, Mason, Monroe, Nicholas, Ohio, Pocahontas, Preston, Randolph,
Russell, Scott, Smyth, Tazewell, Tyler, Washington, Wood, and Wythe;
which together elect 31 delegates to the House of Delegates.

Section First—There is little of Virginia actually level, this term being
strictly applicable only to the counties of Accomac and Northampton, on
the eastern side of the Chesapeake, and to Princess Anne, Norfolk, and
Nansemond on the west; containing an aggregate area of only about 2200
square miles, or less than the thirty-first part of the State.

The shores of the peninsula east of the Chesapeake, which constitute the
two counties of Accomac and Northampton, are low and flat, about 60
miles long, and from 10 to 15 wide, and bounded towards the sea by a
string of low sandy islets. The waters of the Chesapeake enter the sea
between cape Charles and cape Henry, forming a straight of fifteen miles
in width. Norfolk, one of the principle ports of Virginia, has a good harbour
in the southern part of the bay, near the mouth of James River.
The embouchure of the James forms a speacious haven, called Hampton
Roads, in which all the navies in the world might ride; this haven was
formerly open, but the strong fortifications, castle Calhoun, and fortress
Monroe, on the opposite sides of the entrance would now probably render it impracticable
for an adverse fleet to enter.—[See Old Point Comfort—Elizabeth
city county.]

Except in depth, extent, and position the Chesapeake does not differ
essentially from Pamlico and Albemarle sounds on the south, or Delaware
bay on the north. Virginia and Maryland occupy the centre of a physical
section, remarkable for its deep and wide rivers, and the tributaries of
the Chesapeake seem in this respect to imitate their great reservoir. The
Pocomoke, Nantikoke, Choptank, and Chester on the east; and the James,
York, Rappahannock, Potomac, Patuxent, and Patapsco on the west, all
widen into expansive bays before their final discharge. These minor
bays gradually become less deep and wide, as they approach the head of
tide water, but they retain the distinctive character of bays as far as the
tide penetrates.

West of the Chesapeake, the country gradually rises into hill and dale,
though much marshy and flat land skirts the wide mouths of the rivers,
and the minor bays which they form. The soil of the section under review
is strictly alluvial, for though the face of the country, on approaching

the primitive ledge which terminates the tides, is diversified by waving
hills, yet its structure is of the character styled by geologists ancient alluvial.
The greater part of the substrata are composed of sand and pebbles;
large masses of rock in their original position are rare, except at great
depths.

Section Second—The Blue Ridge traverses Virginia for 260 miles, in
a direction from S. W. to N. E. and except where passed by the James
and Roanoke rivers it is a continuous range. It constitutes a county limit
throughout its progress in this state. Falling from this finely delineated
chain, is an inclined plain, containing 15,386 square miles, terminated by
the head of the Atlantic tides. This beautiful section, if we merely regard
the fall of water, has a declivity of about 300 to 500 feet; but the fall of
water gives a very inadequate idea of the slope in the arable soil, which
towards the Blue Ridge rises in many places, to at least 1000 feet, in the
spaces between the rivers. The face of nature though exhibiting little of
grandeur, is extremely rich and pleasing in the endless variety of hill,
valley and river scenery. In the higher part, besides the magnificent back
ground of the Blue Ridge, the more distinct ranges of the Alleghany
may be seen towering above it, from the detached ranges in its neighborhood;
all of which tells that the solid structure of the section is Appalachian,
and that the outer ridges of that system influence the course of
the waters, as may be seen in the Roanoke, James, Rappahannock and
Potomac rivers.

This section is as healthy as any portion of the world, the water is excellent
and plentiful throughout, the lands fertile, producing in abundance
all the staples of the state; easily recovered when exhausted, and always
susceptible of high improvement by judicious management, the farms
are smaller than in the tide water district, the people are industrious and
intelligent, and from James river to the Potomac perhaps are the best
farmers in the state. Mr. Jefferson pronounced that portion of this section
which lies under the south west range of mountains, to be the garden
spot of America; and General Washington, when written to by Sir John
Sinclair to recommend to him some spot for a residence in America, after
passing in review the whole union, pronounced a residence some where
on the eastern side of the Blue Ridge, between the Potomac and the
James, to combine most advantages, and be the most desirable.

Section Third—The great valley section is in some respects the most
remarkable in Virginia; it extends from the Iron mountains, at the N. E.
angle of Tennessee, to the northern bend of the Potomac, at Hancockstown,
its mean length is near 300 miles; the mean distance between the
Blue Ridge and Alleghany about 43. This is a continuation of the Kittatinny
valley of Pennsylvania, and is a true table-land or mountain plateau.
The rise to this plateau is abrupt, the difference of the mean elevation
on the east, and west sides of the Blue Ridge being from 200 to 300
feet. The elevation of Lynchburg is only 500 feet, whilst that of Staunton,
near the sources of the Shenandoah is 1,152 feet; Lexington, in Rockbridge
county, 902 feet; Salem, on the Roanoke, in Botetourt county,
1,200 feet; and the Warm Springs, in Bath county, 1,782 feet; and the
mean elevation of the farms throughout the section in all probability exceeds
1000 feet. A stratum of limestone of varying breadth, runs nearly
parallel with the Blue Ridge, on its western side, which continues to accompany
it in its course through Maryland, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey.

The surface of the great valley of Virginia is much broken and diversified,
but every where contains zones of highly productive soil; it
abounds, with few exceptions, with the purest and best water, and is so rich
in scenery, as to afford an endless variety of beautiful landscape. With regard
to declivity, the Valley presents some curious phenomena. The
northern and nearly one half of the whole surface declines to the N. E.,
towards the Potomac, and is drained by the Shenandoah, Cacapon, and
south branch of Potomac.

South of the sources of the Potomac and Shenandoah, is a middle valley;
which inclines to the east, and is drained by the James and Roanoke the
extreme southern part of the valley inclines to the north west; and is
drained by New river, and the great Kenawha. We thus perceive that
this table land is partly inclined towards the Atlantic, and partly towards
the Ohio; and that the inflected line which separates the sources of the
James and Roanoke, which flow into the former, from those of the great
Kenawha, flowing into the latter,—crosses the valley obliquely from the
Blue Ridge to the Alleghany.

Section Fourth—The extreme length of the Ohio section of Virginia,
from the northern boundary of Tenessee, to the northern angle of Brooke
county, is nearly 300 miles. The greatest breadth is nearly along the general
course of the great Kenawha, about 135 miles; but both extremes are
narrow; the mean width is about 94 miles. The area 28,337 square
miles. The surface is for the most part mountainous, and nearly every
where broken. The chains of the Appalachian system stretch over it, in
a course nearly parallel to that part of the Ohio which bounds Virginia.
The soil is even more variable in quality than the surface is in elevation,
every grade of sterility and fertility may be found. As the elevation of the
water, at the junction of the Ohio and great Kenawha is 533 feet, and that
point is only about 40 miles from the mouth of the great Sandy, the lowest
point in western Virginia, we may regard all the surface of the Ohio section
as rising above 500 feet. The elevation of Wheeling above the Ocean
is 634 feet; and the Ohio, the base of this great inclined plane, and the recipient
of the waters of western Virginia, rises upwards of 560 feet, nearly
to a level with lake Erie. The dividing ridge of the waters of the Ohio
and Atlantic, is the apex of the plain before us, and has its highest elevation
in the mountains, from which the sources of the James and Roanoke
rise on one side, and those of the great Kenawha on the other. Under the
heads of Giles, Pochahontas, and Monroe counties, which occupy the
highest part of the plain we are surveying, it may be seen, that the mean
elevation of the arable soil exceeds 1,600 feet. A similar, if not a higher,
mean height might be assigned to the sources of the great Kanawha, from
those of the Greenbrier to those of New river. From these elevated vallies
the sources of the Ohio flow, like radii from a common centre. The different
branches of the Monongahela rise in Lewis and Randolph counties,
and flowing north, through Harrison,, Monongalia, and Preston counties,
enter Pennsylvania; and uniting their waters, continue north, to meet those of
the Alleghany, and form the Ohio, at Pittsburg. The Ohio from Pittsburg
sweeps a curve first north westward, then westward for nearly 100 miles,
in a course nearly parallel with the Monongahela, the two streams flowing
in opposite directions. From the large curve of the Ohio below Pittsburg,
to the influx of the little Kenawha, there is only a narrow inclined plane of
about 30 miles width, between the Ohio, and the sources of creeks which

flow eastwardly into the Monongahela. Down this plain flow, Harmans,
Cross, Buffalo, Wheeling, Fish, Fishing, Middle Island, and some other
creeks of less note. Near the little Kenawha the plain widens, and the declivity
inclines from W. to N. W. this declination is also maintained in the
vallies of the great Kenawha, and great Sandy rivers.

The tributary waters of the extreme southern part of the Ohio section of
Virginia, though drained into the same recipient, are borne from the elevated
plateau, between the sources of the great Kenawha and Tennessee, and
before their discharge make the immense semicircular curve of the latter.

The difference of level between high-water mark on the Ohio river, and
the elevation we have noticed, is about a mean of 850 feet; but this elevation
is only the first in a series of planes, which rise one above another, until
a mean height of between 1800 and 2000 feet, is attained in central Virginia.
If we assume latitude 38° 10′ as the central latitude, it will at longitude 3°
west of Washington city, correspond nearly with the greatest elevation, and
estimating 400 feet as an equivalent to a degree of latitude, the counties
along the mountainous section of Virginia will have a climate, similar to
that in north latitude 43° on the Atlantic coast.

If from the foregoing elements, we embrace the whole of Virginia, we
have before us, a large section of the United States; extending over more
than 4° of latitude, and 8¾° of longitude, differing in relative level upwards
of 2000 feet, without estimating mountain peaks, or ridges. If we suppose
the actually settled parts of the United States, to be 630,000 square miles,
Virginia will embrace one ninth part. It is as we have seen traversed
from S. W. to N. E. by the Appalachian system of mountains in lateral
chains; of these the Blue Ridge is the most distinctly defined, but is only
one of six or seven chains that may be traced and identified across the state.
One of these chains, though omitted in some maps and broken into fragments
in others, is in nature little less obvious than the Blue Ridge; and is
distinct throughout its course in Virginia. This neglected Appalachian
chain stretches at a distance, varying from 15 to 30 miles, southeastwardly
from the Blue Ridge. It is known in New Jersey as Schooley's mountain,
and though entirely apparent through Pennsylvania, it has received no distinct
appellation in that state. In Maryland it is called the Parr Spring
Ridge, and is rendered very conspicuous where it is traversed by the Potomac,
by the fine conical peak called the Sugar Loaf. In Virginia it
traverses Loudon, Fauquier, Orange, Albemarle, Nelson, Amherst, Bedford,
Franklin, and Henry counties. West of the Blue Ridge, the mountain
chains are also very confusedly delineated on our maps, though they
are far from being so in nature; even on Tanner's large map of the United
States, the continuous chains cease with the Alleghany, whilst in fact
western Virginia is traversed by three distinct chains, west of this mountain;—indeed
the whole state, from the head of tide-water to the Ohio, is
formed of a series of mountain chains, and intervening vallies. This structure
is obvious to all who examine the map, with a knowledge of the influence
of the direction of the hills upon the inflection of the streams. Among
the mountain chains however, the Blue Ridge must ever be the most important,
physically and politically. This chain stands distinct and detached
from the rest, in a remarkable manner. Its highest points are the
Peaks of Otter, in Botetourt county, which may be seen at a great distance;
one of them is remakable for its symmetry, being conical, and terminating in
a limestone cube, the upper surface of which is scarcely sufficiently extensive

to contain a dozen persons. It has been supposed that these beautiful peaks,
are the highest points in the Appalachian system, S. W. of the Delaware,
if computed from their base; but the White Top peaks of the Iron mountains,
near the North Carolina line are now thought to be still more elevated.

The different portions of the state are strikingly distinguished from each
other in their appearance. The tide-water or eastern section, is in general
low, level, sandy, and unproductive,—in some parts exhibiting almost as desolate
appearance as the pine barrens of New Jersey. Above the falls of the
rivers, the country presents a bolder and more picturesque outline, and the
soil if not generally productive, is in most cases capable of improvement;
the alluvial lands on river and creek bottoms of this section are very fine;
those on James river will compare with any in the world for fertility. The
valley section contains a considerable portion of mountainous and sterile
land; but no part of the commonwelth presents larger tracts of fertile and
well cultivated soil, or better adapted to the cultivation of every species of
grain.

West of the Alleghany, a large portion of the country must for ever
remain in its primitive forest; it is generally mountainous and broken, but
interspersed with fertile vallies, well calculated to grazing, and raising
stock, and occasionally presenting rich bodies of limestone.

From the vast extent of this state and the variety of its surface, we should
of course expect a great diversity of climate. In the Atlantic country, east
of the mountains, the heat of summer is long and oppressive, the spring
short and variable, and the winter extremely mild,—snow seldom lying
more than a day after it has fallen. Droughts in summer and autumn are
common, and the people are subject to autumnal fevers. On the mountains,
the air is cool, and salubrious, and the inhabitants are tall and muscular,
with robust forms, and healthy countenances; fires are used during five
months in the year, the heat of summer during the day is considerable, but
the nights are always cool. On the western side of the mountain the climate
is cooler by several degrees, than on the same parallel of latitude on
the coast, the valley of the Ohio, is exceedingly hot in summer, while in
winter, the river is sometimes frozen for two months at a time, so hard as
to be passed on the ice, the autumn is dry, temperate, and healthy, and the
weather most delightful.

From the facts which have been stated with regard to the variety of soil,
and climate in Virginia; a corresponding variety in the staple productions
will at once be suggested. Every vegetable, from cotton to wheat, and the
fig to the apple, can be produced in abundance.

When discovered and colonized by Europeans, the region now comprised
in Virginia, was one continued dense, and vary partially broken forest. A
few savage tribes were found along the tide-waters, but the interior was
scarcely inhabited. It may be remarked that though the soil increases in fertility
as we advance from the seaboard, yet density of population is in a near
ratio to proximity to the place of original settlement, on James river. If
we make every just allowance for the space actually occupied by mountains,
and other unproductive tracts, still there would remain at least 50,000
square miles, capable of sustaining a mean distributive population, equal in
number to that which occupies any of the best inhabited of its existing counties,
(for example, Henrico, including Richmond,) such a ratio, would give
Virginia more than five millions of inhabitants,—a number far below the
population she could support.

The principal Towns are, Richmond, the seat of government, situated at
the falls of James river, on a site or elevation perhaps not to be surpassed
in beauty in the United States, having an extensive view of the river, and an
open, well cultivated, and fertile country for many miles in extent; it contains
16,060 inhabitants. Norfolk, on Elizabeth river, which flows into Hampton
Roads, had in 1830, a population of 9,816. Petersburg and Fredericksburg,
at the falls of the Appomatox and Rappahannock, the first containing
8,300 inhabitants, and the last 3,308. Lynchburg, on James river, 120 miles
above the falls, contains 4,630 inhabitants. Wheeling, on the Ohio, though
only the fourth town in size and population, containing 5,211 inhabitants, is
perhaps the most flourishing town in the state. Besides these—Winchester,
Shepperdstown, Martinsburg, Staunton, Lexington and Fincastle, in the
valley, Charleston, Abingdon and Brooke in the trans-Alleghany section deserve
to be noticed—Williamsburg in the eastern section, and the ancient
seat of government, is on the decline, but Charlottesville, near which the
state University is located, has rapidly improved.

The principal Rivers flowing into the Chesapeak bay, are, the Potomac,
Rappahannock, York and James; all of which are large and navigable.
The Shenandoah traces its quiet course down the valley, at the base of the
Blue Ridge, and unites with the Potomac at Harper's Ferry. The Roanoke
rises in the mountains, and passing into North Carolina, empties
its waters into Albemarle sound. The Monongahela, and great Kenawha
are both tributaries of the Ohio. Besides these, numerous other
streams intersect the country in every direction; and render it inferior to few
in facilities for transportation by water. The Chesapeake bay, one of the
finest on the continent, extends 190 miles from its mouth, into the states of
Virginia and Maryland; it is from 7 to 20 miles broad, and generally 9
fathoms deep.

Geology and Mineralogy.—If we trace a line from the mouth of
Potomac creek, through the Bowling Green and fork of the Pamunky, to
Richmond,—thence through Petersburg and Hicksford, to the Roanoke
near Weldon,—we shall embrace between it and the ocean, only tertiary,
and alluvial formations. The soil contains oxides of iron, shells and marle,
bones of sharks, whales, and other fish, carbonated wood, and other vegetable
remains. From this line to the Blue Ridge, the formation may be regarded
as essentially primitive; as most of the rocks are of that denomination.
In this space however, two belts of transition and secondary formation
have been found resting on the primitive rocks. One of these is the
sand-stone and coal formation of the counties of Goochland, Powhatan, and
Chesterfield; which is supposed to continue through the state, in a direction
parallel to its mountains; the other, a narrow stratum of limestone, which
has been found at the base of the South West mountains, at various points
between the Potomac and James, and which yields in several of its quaries
beautiful marble. In this primitive region, various valuable ores and pure
metals have been discovered, among them iron ore in masses, and layers,—
black lead,—copper, and gold. It is now well ascertained that a formation
in which the latter metal is frequently found, commences near the Rappahannock
in the county of Spottsylvania, and inclining with the mountains
from N. E. to S. E. runs through Spottsylvania, Louisa, Fluvanna, and
Goochland, to James river; and crossing this stream near the Point of fork,
passes through Buckingham into North Carolina, and thence on to the
Cherokee lands in Georgia. Many portions of this vein are extremely rich,

and the purity is so extraordinary, the ore so near the surface, and the machinery
necessary for its collection so cheap, that many individuals have engaged
in the search. [For a more particular discription, see the several
counties mentioned.] The dip of the rocks in this region is usually about 45°.

West of the Blue Ridge, the country may be considered as divided by a
line, sometimes corresponding with the Alleghany mountains, but in general
running east of them; and south of the head waters of the Roanoke,
stretching along the summits of the Bushy, Clinch, and Garden mountains.
East of this line, the primitive rocks appear only at the tops of high
ridges and mountains; the intervals between, and the sides of the mountains
being in general transition, but sometimes secondary formations. Among
the rocks of this region, are blue and gray limestone, slate, sandstone, gypsum,
buhrstone, and conglomerate or pudding stone,—iron ore of the best
quality is extensively distributed in this portion of the state, and valuable
lead mines are worked in Wythe county, near Austinsville. The dip of the
rocks is in this district less than in the primitive, but sometimes rises to 45°.

West of this line described lies the great secondary formation of the state.
The line of strata is more or less undulating, but in general nearly horizontal.
This portion of the state abounds in mineral wealth. Bituminous
coal, and iron ore are found almost everywhere;—beds of limestone are extensively
distributed, and the caverns which abound in them furnish large
quantities of nitre. The salt wells of the great Kenawha and Holston, are
even superior to those of Onandagua, in New York; and new springs are
every day developing themselves and being brought into operation, on the
little Kenawha, and in other places. When greater facilities of transportation
shall be given to this district of country, it may be confidently predicted
that no portion of the United States will present greater rewards to industry
and enterprize.

Mineral Waters.—The Hydro-sulphurous springs of Virginia have
been long celebrated. Perhaps they are surpassed in no portion of the
earth for efficacy, in most of the cases which result from diseased action of
the liver, or the stomach. They are known by the appellations of the Blue
sulphur, White sulphur, Salt and Red sulphur springs, to which have been
recently added, the Gray sulphur; and are situated, the two former in Greenbrier,
at the foot of the western slope of the Alleghany,—and the three last
in the county of Monroe. The Blue sulphur holds at least three active medicinal
qualities in its composition; its tonic quality admirably sustains and
husbands the debilitated system, while the alimentary canal and the glandular
organs are efficiently operated upon, by its cathartic and deobstruent
powers. The White sulphur acts, when taken in doses of two or three
glasses at a time, as an alterative, exercising on the system much of the
salutary influence, without the evil effects of mercury,—used in larger
quantities it becomes actively diaretic and purgative. The Salt sulphur is
more remarkable than the White, for the latter property; but not equal to it
in the former. The Red sulphur, in addition to the qualities which it has
in common with the last mentioned springs, is remarkable for its action on
the pulse, which it reduces considerably in a short time: this property renders
it highly valuable in pulmonary affections. The Sweet springs are
situated on Potts' creek (a branch of James river) about 22 miles east of the
Salt sulphur springs. They are of the class of waters called acidulous,
and are valuable as a tonic in cases of debility, and in all the varieties of
dyspepsia which are unaccompanied by inflammation. Their temperature is

about 73°. In the same range of mountains in which the Sweet springs are
situated, and from 35 to 40 miles to the northeast are the thermal waters,
known as the Warm and the Hot springs. The baths of the former are
of the temperature of 96°, and are famed for relieving rhumatism, and various
other complaints. The temperature of the latter, present every variety,
from 51 to 107°, and are celebrated for their efficacy in cutaneous,
rhumatic, dyspeptic, and liver complaints. Dr. Bell, in describing these
springs observes,—all that has been performed by the Bristol, Buxton, and
Bath waters in England, may be safely claimed as of easy accomplishment by
the Virginia waters just enumerated. If to the Hot, Warm and Sweet
springs,—We add the white, Salt, Red, and Blue Sulphur,—we may safely
challenge any district of country of the same extent in the world to produce
the same number and variety of valuable waters,—whether we have
regard to their mineral impregnation or temperature, or the time in which
they relieve entirely and permanently from a host of distressing maladies.

Besides the above waters, there are various others of more or less value in
Virginia. The springs at Bath, in Berkely county, have similar properties
with the Sweet springs, and a temperature somewhat higher. In Botetourt,
Montgomery, and Augusta there are also Hydro-sulphurous waters, similar
in character to those in Greenbrier and Monroe, but of less efficacy. [See
in the several counties named, a more particular description of these
springs.] It is astonishing that these waters should, as long as their value
has been known, never have been accurately analyzed; until the summer of
1834, Professor Rogers of William and Mary college analyzed the Warm
spring water, the result of which may be seen under the head of Bath
county.

Scenery and Natural Curiosities.—The scenery of Virginia is in
general highly picturesque. Without possessing the combination of highland
and water prospect, which gives such a charm to the shores of the
Hudson, or the soft lake scenery of the interior of New York; she surpasses
even that state in the beauty of her vallies, and the grandeur of her
mountains. The James and Kanawha vallies, offer at many points, in the
bold outlines of their hills, and their broad and fertile low-lands, images
which remind the traveller of the rich scenery of the Loire and the Garonne,
The mountains of the state are strikingly distinguished, not only by an
ever-varying succession of hill and dale, but by the beauty of their covering;
their vigorous growth of oak, chesnut and lynn, contrasting advantagiously
with the mountain districts of the northern and eastern states.

The Curiosities of Virginia, present to the traveller, objects of yet deeper
interest than her scenery. Among them may be enumerated:—the passage
of the Potomac, through the Blue Ridge, so happily described by Mr.
Jefferson,—that of James river through the same mountain;—the cliffs of
New river, which present for a distance of 20 miles, a succession of sublime
scenery—rivalled in our country only by that of Niagara, between the falls
and Queenstown;—the celebrated Natural Bridge of Rockbridge, and the natural
Tunnell of Scott county, "the most sublime of nature's works,"—the various
medicinal springs already noticed,—and the burning springs of Kanawha.
The blowing cave at the Panther's Gap in Rockbridge, admits perpetually
a strong current of air. Other extensive and beautiful caverns exist
in the limestone districts of the state; of the latter, two surpass the rest in
beauty and interest,—the one called Weyer's cave, from its discoverer,—the
other Allen's cave,—the former is situated in Augusta, near the little village

of Port Republic,—the latter is situated in Shenandoah county, a short
distance from Front Royall, on the right bank of the Shenandoah, about a
quarter of a mile from the river, and is said to surpass Weyer's in the grandeur
and beauty of its chambers. The description given by Goldsmith of
the grotto of Antiparos seems almost literally to apply to these interesting
works of nature; Weyer's cave penetrates to a distance of 2700 feet; and
Allens 1200; presenting a series of lofty passages, and spacious apartments,
encrusted with chrystals, and glittering with beautiful stalactites, exhibiting
some of nature's wildest and most beautiful fantasies. We feel in
traversing these magnificient apartments, as if we were visiting some of those
enchanted palaces in which of old the Knights of chivalry were spellbound,
or gazing on the bright visions, and revelling in the beautiful
scenes conjured up by the magic of eastern fancy. A cave on Jackson's
river, near Covington, is said to be much more extensive and intricate than
those mentioned, but not so beautiful. In Montgomery county on the north
bank of New river, 1¼ miles from Newbern, is situated what is called the
Glass Windows; a great curiosity, which presents the spectator with a scene
almost as magnificient as the natural bridge. The Falling Water, in Berkely
county, and Falling Spring, in Bath, are two beautiful cataracts,—the first
is situated on the bank of the Potomac, 6 miles north east from Martinsburg,
and falls over a large alluvial rock, which rises 200 feet above the surface of
the river,—the latter rises in the Warm Spring mountains, about 20 miles
south west of the Warm springs, and about three quarters of a mile from its
source, falls over a rock more than 200 feet above the valley below. The
ebbing and flowing springs of Bath and Washington counties, may be mentioned
as great natural curiosities,—the former situated in the valley of the
Cow Pasture river, 16 miles north east of the Warm springs; it ebbs and
flows to a remarkable extent—affording when the tide is full, sufficient water
for a gristmill,—when at ebb, only supplying a tanyard and a distillery;
the water is of the purest and best quality, and equal in the hottest seasons to
the temperature of ice-water. The Ice-mountain and Ice-cave, in Hampshire
county are very remarkable. On the north west side of the mountain, the
surface is covered with loose stones, which being removed to the depth of
three feet, an abundance of ice may be found at all seasons of the year.
The Ice Cave, is situated near the top of a hill, nearly 1000 feet high—affords
an abundant supply of excellent ice throughout the year. The most
remarkable cataract in the State, is the Falling Spring, in Alleghany county.
The stream has sufficient power, a few yards from its source, to turn a
mill wheel, and about a mile below, it has a perpendicular descent of 200
feet, over a precipice of calcareous rock; before it reaches the bottom, it is almost
converted into vapour, and the temperature is considerably reduced;
the stream unites with Jackson's river, about a mile below the cataract.
The Salt Pond lake, in Giles' county, not having been described in any account
of the state, deserves to be noticed. It presents the curious spectacle
of a beautiful sheet of water, about three miles in circumference, and a 100
fathoms deep, on the summit of a lofty mountain. Some of the aged people
in the neighborhood, remember when its bottom was a spot of marshy
ground, covered with pine and oak timber, and much frequented by deer
and elk in pursuit, as was supposed, of salt. In process of time, a small
pond was formed in the centre,—encreasing slowly at first, untill a stream
which flowed out high on the mountain, suddenly ceased, and then rapidly
rising above the tops of the trees, and finally to the top of the mountain,
which it overflows at an angle below the general level. The water is entirely
fresh, and abounds with lizards, but has no fish, The idea which
prevails of its alternate rise and fall is erroneous; it is 3700 feet above the
Ocean.

Lake Drummond, in the Dismal Swamp, is about 7 miles in extent, and
varies from 10 to 20 feet deep; it is about 24 feet above tide water; and in
times of drought, the only feeder to the Dismal Smamp canal. Its waters
are cool, and strongly impregnated with juniper, but pleasent to drink. Our
limits will not permit us to notice the carved or calico rock of Kanawha,
and various other curiosities of the state, which merit description but some
account of them will be found in the several counties in which they are located.[1]

MOUNTAINS.

Having taken a general survey of the whole of Virginia, we will now
give a more particular description of her mountain ranges, and the courses
of her streams. Our mountains are not scattered confusedly in groups, or
in solitude over the surface of the country; but are disposed in massive ridges,
commencing about 180 miles from the coast, and running parallel with
it, in a S. W. direction. The first continuous chain derives its name from
the deep blue colour by which it is distinguished. The North Mountains
are from 20 to 30 miles farther west, and these are succeeded by the great
Appalachian or Alleghany range, which divides the eastern and western
waters. The Appalachian system presents its widest base in Virginia, and
if we include its various lateral ridges, occupies a superficies of nearly one
hundred miles in breadth, nearly all of which is covered with mountains
and vallies. In the same direction generally are the veins of limestone,
coal, and other minerals, and the falls of the rivers. James and Potomac
rivers penetrate through all the ranges east of the Alleghany;—that is broken
by no water course, and is in fact the spine of the country between the
Atlantic on one side, and the Mississippi, and St. Lawrence on the other.
The passage of the Potomac through the Blue Ridge has been said to be
perhaps one of the most stupendous scenes in nature. You stand on a very
high point of land,—on your right comes the Shenandoah, having

ranged along the foot of the mountains for a 100 miles in search of a vent,—
on your left approaches the Potomac, also in quest of a passage,—at the
moment of their junction they rush together through the mountain and pass
to the sea. The first glance of the scene hurries us into the belief that the
mountains were created before the rivers, that in this place the latter were
dammed up by the former, and made a lake, which covered a considerable
portion of the valley,—that continuing to rise, they at length burst through
at the spot, and tore asunder the mountain from its summit to its base. The
piles of rock on each side, but especially on that of the Shenandoah, bear
evident marks of rupture and avulsion from their beds, by some powerful
force. The distant finishing which nature has given to the picture is of a
very different character; and a perfect contrast to the fore-ground. The
former is as placid and delightful as the latter is wild and tremendous.
You see through the rough and horrid cleft, a clear and beautiful view of
level and fertile country, bounded only by the limits of human vision.

The height of our mountains has not yet been estimated with any degree
of exactness. There is no doubt but the Alleghany, as it is the dividing
ridge for the waters, is more elevated above the ocean than the rest; but its
relative height, estimated from the base on which it stands, will not compare

with that of some of its kindred ranges;—the country rising a considerable
step behind each range. It has been before stated that the Peaks of
Otter, in the Blue Ridge, were supposed until lately to be the highest points
measured from their base, in North America; but it has since been ascertained
that the White Top Peaks of the Iron mountains are still more elevated.
The highest peak of the latter is only about 4,260 feet above the
Atlantic ocean,—which is not one fifth part of the height of the mountains
of South America, or one third of the height which would be necessary in
our latitude, to preserve ice unmelted in the open air throughout the year.
The range of mountains next beyond the Blue Ridge, which we call the
North Mountain, received the name of Endless mountain from the Indians,
on account of its great extent.

Alleghany mountain of the Appalachian system. It is an unanswerable
objection to giving the name of Alleghany to the whole system, that it
has been appropriated to a particular chain in Pennsylvania, Maryland and
Virginia. From the basin of the Kanawha, to that of the western branch
of the Susquehannah, through 4° of latitude, the Alleghany is a dividing
ridge between the waters flowing into the Atlantic, from those of the Ohio,
giving source, eastward to the branches of James river and the Potomac
and on the other side, or weastward to those of the Kanawha, Monongahela,
Youghioghany and Kiskiminitas. The ridges which form the particular
chain of the Alleghany, are not very distinctly defined, though the entire
chain constitutes so remarkable a feature in the geography of the United
States. The length of the Alleghany is, from Monroe county, in Virginia,
in the valley of the Kanawha, to Centre county, in Pennsylvania, in the valley
of Susquehannah, 300 miles. The height varies, but may be stated at

2500 feet, as a mean. Similar to all other chains of the Appalachian system,
that of Alleghany does not rise into peaks, but stretches in parallel ridges,
which, to the view from either side, presents gentle rounded, and swelling
knolls, or elegantly defined lines, which bound the distant horizon. The
component material of the Alleghany, is mostly graywake, though limestone
and other rocks occasionally occur. This chain is rich in iron and bituminous
coal. Some ridges have naked summits, but this feature is rare, the
ridges generally being clothed with timber in all their height. A few
mountain planes with tolerable soil for agriculture occur, but mostly the soil
is rocky and barren, and often marshy. Pine and oak the most abundant
timber.

Appalachian System.—The name given to the immense chain extending
along the whole Atlantic course of the United States, from Alabama to
Maine. In the southern states they are 200 miles from the sea, but to the
north they approach near the coast. They run generally in parallel ridges,
and the various divisions go by different names. In Tennessee they are
called the Cumberland Mountains,—in Virginia—Blue Ridge,—in Pennsylvania
the Alleghany and Laurel Mountains,—in New York,—the Catskill,—in
Vermont the Green Mountains, and in New Hampshire,—the
White Mountains. They are sometimes broken into groups and isolated
chains. Their highest summits are in New Hampshire, and between 6
and 7000 feet above the level of the sea. East of the Hudson they are of
granite formation. In the west and south they consist of granite, gneis, mica,
clay-state, primitive limestone, &c.

Blue Mountain.—This undistinguishing term has been applied to several
chains of the Appalachian system in the United States, but more particularly
to that one called by some tribes of Indians "Kaatatin Chunk," or
Endless Mountain. If we turn our attention to the Appalachian chain we
find them often only interrupted, where a cursory survey would lead us to
place a termination. Whether the Kittatinny Chain or "Blue Mountain"
could be detected eastward from the Hudson we are unprepared to determine,
but westward of that river, this chain is found distinct in the Shawangunk,
near Kingston, in Ulster county, New York. It thence ranges
S. W., meets and turns Delaware river at the extreme northern angle of New
Jersey, and continues its original direction to the Delaware Water Gap,
where the mountain chain is traversed by the river, and the former curves
more to the westward, enters Pennsylvania, over which it ranges about 150
miles to the northern angle of Franklin county, after having been pierced
by the Lehigh, Schuylkill, and Susquehannah rivers. Between Franklin
and Bedford counties the Kittatinny reassumes nearly its original direction in
the state of New York, and though in some places confounded with the Alleghany,
really continues a distinct chain over Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina
and Tennessee, into Alabama, S. W. of Susquehannah, the Kittatinny
rises, and extending first nearly west, between the tributaries of Coredogwinet
and Shoreman's rivers, is thence broken into ridges bounding on
the west, the valley of Conecocheague, gradually curves to the souhward,
and reaches Potomac, extending very little west of south. Rising again
beyond the Potomac, between the Opequan and Black creeks, it runs nearly
parallel with the Blue Ridge, is passed by the North Fork of Shenandoah,
and extends thence between the two main branches of that river.
Though scarcely appearing distinctly on our best maps, the chain of Kittatinny
is completely distinct, and continues over Rockingham, Augusta

and Rockbridge counties, Virginia, into Botetourt, to where it is traversed
by James river, below the mouth of Craig's creek. Rising again beyond
James river, the chain stretches along the higher sources of James and
Roanoke rivers, to the centre of Montgomery county, near Christiansburg.
Here it leaves the Atlantic slope, and merges into the valley of the Ohio,
by entering the subvalley of New river or Upper Kanawha.

Thus far, in all its range from the Hudson, the Kittatinny chain is broken
into links by the higher sources of the Atlantic rivers, and similar to the
Southeast Mountain and Blue Ridge, the base gradually rises, ascending
the vast inclined plain obliquely, until it reaches the highest apex between
the sources of Roanoke and those of Little river branch of New river. In
this region the lowest gap through which measurements have been made
for a projected canal, is 2049 feet above the level of the Atlantic ocean.
The base of the chain now commences to depress and inflecting to a course
considerably west of S. W., is traversed by New river or Upper Kanawha.
Beyond the latter stream, under the Local name of Iron Mountain, and discharging
to the eastward the tributaries of New river, and from the opposite
flank those of the south branch of Holston and Watauga, it reaches the
extreme N. E. angle of the Tennessee. At the latter point, the chain assumes
a direction very nearly S. W., and under the various local names of
Iron Mountain, Bald Mountain, Smoky Mountain and Unika Mountain, is
pierced in succession by Watuga, Doe, Nolechucky, French, Broad, Big,
Pigeon, Tennessee, Proper and Hiwasse rivers, and merges according to
Tanner's map of the United States, into Blue Ridge, in the northern part of
Georgia, between the sources of Coosa and Hiwassee rivers.

If the whole body of the Kittatinny and its mean elevation is compared
with the body and elevation of the Blue Rridge, the former exceeds in both
respects, from the Hudson to their termination in Georgia, though at the
high lands on the Hudson and in the Peaks of Otter, the Blue Ridge rises
to a superior elvevation from their respective bases.

As a distinct and defined chain the Kittatinny is upwards of eight hundred
miles in length. The height above the ocean varies from 800 to
2,500 feet. All the ridges in their natural state were wooded to their summits,
though the trees are generally stunted in growth at any considerable
height. In the vallies along both flanks the timber is often very large and
lofty; particularly the pines, oaks, hemlocks and liriodendron. On some of
the ridges good arable soil is found on the summits, but sterility is the general
character of the soil. Amongst the peculiar features of this chain, one
may be remarked, which gives it a very distinct character. In all its
length, it is no where strictly a dividing limit between river sources.
Without assuming any connexion with the mountains eastward of the Hudson,
the Kittatinny is pierced by the Delaware, Lehigh, Schuylkill, Susquehannah,
Potomac and James rivers, flowing into the Atlantic ocean,
and by the Great Kanawha, and various branches of Tennessee, flowing into
the valley of the Ohio, or basin of the Mississippi.

Blue Ridge.—Of the distinctive chains of the Appalachian system, and
indeed of all the sections of this system, the Blue Ridge stands most apart
and prominent, though of much narrower base, and of less mean elevation
than either the Kittatinny or Alleghany. On a colored map of Virginia
the Blue Ridge has a very striking appearance, arising from the fact of
being a county limit in all its range over that state. Without tracing a
probable but hypothetical identity, between the mountains of Massachusetts,

Connecticut and Vermont, with the Blue Ridge, we first meet this chain
distinct at West Point on the Hudson river. Thence it rises into broken
but continuous ridges over New York and New Jersey, to the Delaware, in
a S. W. direction. Traversed by the Delaware immediately below the influx
of Lehigh, and inflecting similar to the Kittatinny, to S. W. by W., it
is pierced by the Schuylkill at Reading, by the Susquehannah below the
mouth of Swatara, by the Potomac at Harper's Ferry, by James river, between
Bedford and Amherst counties, Virginia, and by the Roanoke between
Bedford and Franklin counties in the same state. In its further
progress S. W. from Roanoke, the Blue Ridge becomes the limit of river
source to its final extinction in Alabama. The length of this chain from the
Hudson to Roanoke, is 450 miles, and from Roanoke to where it ceases to be
a distinct chain in Alabama, 350 miles, having an entire length of 800 miles
S. W. from the Hudson. The Hudson does not, however, terminate the
Blue Ridge to the N. E. Many river passages through mountains have
been noticed and celebrated, and, among others, the passage of this chain
by the Potomac at Harper's Ferry, but it may be doubted whether from all
the attendent circumstances, any similar phenomenon on earth combines so
many very remarkable features as the passage of the tide stream of the Hudson
through the two chains, the S. E. Mountain and Blue Ridge.

Profoundly deep, far below the utmost draught of the largest vessels of
war, the flux and reflux of the tides rush along a narrow and tortuous channel,
on both sides bounded by enormous craggy and almost perpendicular
walls of rock, rising from one thousand to twelve or fifteen hundred feet
above the water surface. Sailing along this astonishing gorge the mind involuntarily
demands by what operation of nature has this complication of
wonders been produced? Again, what in an eminent degree enhances the
surprise and admiration, is the fact, that this great river pass is made directly
through a mountain nucleus. In all the chains of the Appalachian system,
masses rise at different places, far beyond the ordinary height, and
spreading much wider than the mean base of the chain in which they occur.
The Peaks of Otter—the Peaks in the Catsbergs, in Windham, Green
county, New York, several peaks of the Green mountains in Vermont,
and above all, the White mountains of New Hampshire, are examples.
The Highlands, pierced by the Hudson, and passed by the tide from the ocean,
are however, every thing considered, by much the most remarkable of these
mountain peaks or groups to be found, not only in the United States, but
probably on this planet. Receding from the highlands, either to the S. W.
or N. E. the chain depresses so much, that on our maps, the continuity in either
direction, is generally not represented. There is, nevertheless, in the
vicinity of the Hudson, no real interruption of either the South Mountains,
or Blue Ridge, along their direction. The highest peaks being in the Blue
Ridge on both sides of the river. Of these peaks, the highest is Butter Hill,
which rises 1,535 feet above the ocean tides, and rising abruptly from the
water, affords a very fine and extended landscape to the N. W. and W.

After leaving the Hudson, Blue Ridge continues to N. E. about 20 miles,
and then, similar to other chains of the same system on both sides of that
river, rapidly inflects to a course a very little north of east, a direction
which it maintains above 250 miles in the states of New York, Massachusetts
and Vermont. For the first 70 miles of its northerly course, the Blue
Ridge discharges from its eastern flank numerous branches of Housatonic,
and from the opposing slope, Fishkill, Wappingers, Jansen's or Ancram

and Kinderhook creeks, flowing westward into the Hudson. With the
sources of Housatonic and Hoosack rivers, the features of Blue Ridge change;
hitherto from the Hudson, a line of river sources, it now looses that character,
and is broken into innumerable ridges by the higher sources of Hoosack
and Batten Kill, flowing into the Hudson, and thence by those of Paulet,
Otter, Onion, La Moille and Missisque rivers, falling into lake Champlain.
All these latter streams rise in the S. E. mountain, and flowing down a
western slope pass the Blue Ridge.

A hypothesis may be hazarded, that what is designated Green mountains
in the sourthern part of Vermont, and the ridge or series of ridges, known by
the same term in the northern part of the same state, are fragments of two
separate chains, though generally represented as the continuation of one
and the same chain. Regarding the great western chain, east of the Hudson,
in the state of New York, Massachusetts and Vermont, as the continuation
of Blue Ridge, the whole length of the chain in the United States, exceeds
1,000 miles. In relative elevation, the Blue Ridge is humble, though
in one part, Bedford county, Virginia, the peaks of Otter rise to 4,200 feet
above tide water. Generally, the ridges are from 700 to 1,000 feet above
their bases, and the base rising with the mountain, when the ridges are
seen from the elevated table land, from which flow Roanoke, Kanawha,
Yadkin and Tennessee, they are, in fact, less imposing than when seen from
the Hudson, Delaware, Susquehannah, Potomac or James rivers, though at
the former region, the real oceanic elevation is more than double what
it is near the more northern rivers.

From its prominence, and southwestwardly from the Hudson, its isolation,
Blue Ridge has been, though very erroneously, regarded and delineated
as the extreme southeastern chain of the system; in reality, however, it is
the third distinct chain advancing from the Atlantic ocean.

Cumberland Mountain is a chain of the Appalachian system, and
continues under this name through Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee and
part of Alabama; whilst it is known in Pennsylvania as the Laurel chain.
This mountain though not so delineated on our maps, is continuous from
Steuben county, in New York, to Jackson, Morgan and Blunt counties in
Alabama,—along an inflected line of 800 miles. About the extreme eastern
angle of Kentucky, and S. W. of the Great Sandy, this chain becomes distinctly
known as the Cumberland mountain, and ranging S. W. seperates
Virginia from Kentucky; as far as Cumberland Gap, on the northern boundary
of Tennessee, continuing S. W., but with an inflection to the N. W.
this chain stretches over Tennessee,—dividing in its course the waters of
the Cumberland from those of Tennessee river, entering Alabama, and
crossing Tennessee river at its great bend, it gradually disappears among
the sources of the Black Warrior river. The Cumberland chain is in no
part very elevated,—ranging from 800 to 1,000 feet above the level of the
tide; but though humble as to relative height, it maintains otherwise all the
distinctive characters of the other Appalachian chains; extending in long,
regular and often lateral ridges, passable only at long intervals where gaps
occur, or where it is traversed by rivers. The ridges are wooded to the
summit.

Kittatinny Mountains, an extensive and important chain of the Appalachian
system. In Pennsylvania the Kittatinny is very definite, and
with an intervening valley between their ranges, parallel to the Blue Ridge.
It is the same chain, however, which first becomes definite in the state of

New York, west of the Hudson, and there known as the Shawangunk, and
extending S. W. over the upper part of New Jersey, enters Pennsylvania
at the Delaware Water gap. Thence inflecting to W. S. W., is traversed
by the Lehigh at the Lehigh Water gap, by the Schuylkill above Hamburg,
and by the Susquehannah, five miles above Harrisburg. From the
latter point the chain again inflects still more to the westward, between Cumberland
and Perry counties. At the western extremity of those two counties,
the chain abruptly bends to a nearly southern course, between Franklin
and Bedford counties, enters Maryland, by the name of Cove mountain,
being traversed by the Potomac river, between Williamsport and
Hancockstown, and stretches into Virginia, as the Great North mountains,
over Virginia, from the Potomac to James river, between Rockbridge and
Alleghany counties. This chain though broken, remains distinct, a similar
character prevails from James river to New river, between Wythe and
Grayson counties. After being traversed by New river, the chain again
assumes complete distinctness, leaves Virginia, and under the local name of
Iron mountains, Bald mountains, Smoky mountains and Unika mountains,
separates North Carolina and Tennessee, to the Unika turnpike on the
western border of Macon county, of the former state. Thence continuing a
little W. of S. W., crosses the N. W. angle of Georgia, enters Alabama,
and separating the sources of the creeks of Middle Tennessee river, from
those of Coosa, merges into the hills from which rise the numerous
branches of Tuscaloosa.

Thus, defectively as the Kittatinny, called expressly by the Indians Kataatin
Chunk, or the Endless mountains, are delineated on our maps, it is
in nature a prominent and individual chain, from N. lat 34° 31′ to 41° 30′,
and 2° 45′ E to 10° W long, Washington city. Ranging through 7° of lat.
and almost 13° of long., stretching along a space exceeding 900 statute miles,
and varying in distance from the Blue Ridge, between 15 to 25 miles, generally
about 20, though in some places the two chains approach, as at Harrisburg,
to within less than 10 miles from each other. In relative height the
Kittatinny exceeds the Blue Ridge, but as regards the plain or table land
on which they both stand, it rises gradually from tide water in Hudson
river, to an elevation of 2,500 feet in Ashe county, of North Carolina. From
James river to the Hudson, the chain ranges along the Atlantic slope, and
is broken by streams flowing through it on their course towards the Atlantic
ocean, but passing the higher valley of James river, the Kittatinny winds
over the real dividing line of the waters, and is thence traversed by New
river, Watauga, Nolechucky, French Broad and Tennessee rivers.

Kittatinny Valley, in the most extended sense of the term, is in length
commensurate with the mountain chain from which the name is derived;
it therefore extends from Hudson river to the northern part of Alabama, varying
in width from eight to 25 miles, with generally a substratum of limestone
towards Blue Ridge, and of clay slate on the side of the Kittatinny. Some of
the most flourishing agricultural districts of the United States, are included
in this physical section. The county of Orange, in New York, Sussex and
Warren, in New Jersey, are nearly all comprised within its limits. In
Pennsylvania it embraces the greater part of the lower section of Northampton;
nearly all Lehigh, Berks and Lebanon, the lower part of Dauphin,
with the greater share of Cumberland and Franklin. In Maryland the
eastern and left part of Washington. In Virginia, a large part of Berkley,
Jefferson, Frederick, Shenandoah Rockingham, Augusta, Rockbridge, Botetourt,

Montgomery and Grayson, and in North Carolina, the counties of
Ashe, Buncombe, Haywood and Macon.

The latitude and relative elevation of this great zone has already been
shown in the preceding article, and the peculiar features of its parts may be
seen under the respective heads of the counties it embraces, in whole or in
part.

Laurel Hill, or Laurel Mountain, is a local name given to several
of the western chains of the Appalachian system, and leads of course to confusion.
The chain in Pennsylvania extending from the Conemaugh to the
Youghioghany river,—and which seperates Cambria county, from Westmorland,
and Summerset from Westmorland and Fayette, is there called the
Laurel Hill, whilst another chain ten miles further west, is called the
Chesnut Ridge. Both these ridges continue out of Pennsylvania, and enter
Virginia, S. W. of the Youghioghany; but the names are reversed, and
the Chesnut Ridge of Pennsylvania is the Laurel Hill of Virginia. Such
is the wretched delineation of the Appalachian system, on all of our maps,
that no adequate idea of the respective chains, can, in many instances, be
obtained from them. The two chains mentioned in this article, though not
so represented, preserve their identity, in a manner similar to the Blue Ridge,
from New York to Alabama.

BAYS, HARBOURS, RIVERS, SWAMPS, &c.

To complete our view of Natural Virginia, we have only to consider her
waters these for convenience we shall arrange as we have the mountains,
in alphabetical order.

Albemarle Sound belongs to North Carolina, but as it is intimately
connected with some of the waters of Virginia, we will notice it,—It is an
estuary of the Roanoke and Chowan rivers, extending 60 miles in length
from east to west, along N. lat 36°, with a mean breadth of eight miles, but
protruding several deep minor bays. The Roanoke enters from the west,
and the Chowan from the N. W. at the extreme interior of Albemarle, which
spreads below the entrance of those rivers in a shallow expanse of water,
with a level, or rather a flat, country along each shore. Every small inlet
has its own comparative broad bay, by one of which, the Pasquotank, a navigable
inland communication by the Dismal Swamp canal, has been formed
between Albemarle sound and Chesapeake bay. Albemarle sound is separated
from the Atlantic ocean, by long, low, and narrow reefs of sand; but
having two channels of connexion southward with Pamlico sound, one on
each side of the Roanoke Island, and on the northward an opening to the
ocean by Currituck sound and inlet; both rivers are navigable to near their
sources. The climate of this basin differs very much between its extremes,
both from difference of latitude and of level. The latitude differs near 3¼
degrees, and the level not less than 1000 feet, giving an entire difference of
temperature of upwards of 5 degrees of latitude. The vegetable productions,
both natural and exotic, have a corresponding variety with the extent of climate.
On this basin, near the mouth, the orange and sugar cane are cultivated,
and on its higher branches, the apple, and wheat, rye, oats, and other
cerealia. The staple vegetable, however, both on the interior and islands
contiguous to this basin, is cotton, though admitting a very wide range of
staple, such as tobacco, indigo, &c. Rice is extensively cultivated.

Appomatox river rises in Buckingham and Prince Edward counties,

and flows thence by a very crooked channel, but by a general eastern course,
with the counties of Prince Edward, Amelia, Dinwiddie, and Prince George,
on the right, and Buckingham, Cumberland, Powhatan, and Chesterfield on
the left, and falls into James river after a comparative course of 90 miles.
The tide ascends the Appomattox, to the falls of Petersburg, about 20 miles
above the mouth, and thus far contains depth of water for large merchant
vessels. This stream drains a very fine section of Virginia, between lat.
37° 33′ and 37° 26′ north. It may be navigated as far as Broadway's, by
any vessel which has crossed Harrison's bar, in James river, and has eight
or nine feet water a few miles higher up to Fisher's bar; and by late improvements
it contains seven feet water to Petersburg, where navigation
ceases.

Bannister river rises by numerous branches in Pittsylvania county,
and flowing twenty-five miles in a N. E. direction, enters Halifax county, and
inflects to the S. E. about 30 miles, and falls into Dan river about ten miles
above the junction of the latter with the Roanoke. Bannister drains most
part of the peninsula between Dan and Roanoke rivers, below the eastern
boundary of Henry and Franklin counties.

Big Sandy, mentioned before as Great Sandy river, has its most remote
sources in the north western slopes of Clinch mountain, but receives tributaries
from a distance of 70 miles, along the upper parts of Russell, Tazewell,
and Logan counties. The eastern or main branch rises in Logan and
Tazewell, but the higher streams uniting, the main channel becomes, for a
distance of 30 miles, a line of demarcation between those two counties, to
where it passes Cumberland mountain. From the latter point to its influx
into the Ohio, the channel of Big Sandy separates Kentucky from Virginia,
flowing between Logan and Cabell of the latter, and Floyd, Lawrence, and
Greenup of the former state. The main or eastern branch of Big Sandy
has interlocking sources with those of Guyandot, Blue-stone, a branch of
Great Kanawha, Clinch branch of Tennesse, and its own West Fork.

The West Fork of Sandy rises in Russell county, flows thence westward,
traverses Cumberland mountain, and enters Pike county, Kentucky. Passing
over Pike into Floyd in the original direction, the channel curves to
northward, and unites with the eastern branch between Lawrence of Kentucky,
and Cabell of Virginia. The valley of Big Sandy is in its greatest
length from S. S. E. to N. N. W. about 100 miles, with a mean breadth of
about 30, area 3000 square miles; bounded to the westward by the vallies of
Kentucky and Licking rivers, to the northeastward by that of Guyandot,
and eastward by that of New river, or the upper waters of Great Kanawha.
The main stream enters the Ohio at Catlettsburgh in Greenup county, Kentucky,
and opposite to the extreme southern angle of the state of Ohio, N.
lat 38° 24′ and long 5° 33′ west of Washington.

Blackwater river has its extreme source in Prince George county, and
within 8 or 10 miles southward from the influx of Appomatox into James
river. Flowing thence southeastward over Surry and Sussex, it inflects to
the southward and separating Southampton on the right from Isle of
Wight, and Nansemond on the left, falls into the Nottoway river very nearly
on the border between Virginia and North Carolina, after a comparative course
of 70 miles.

Blue-stone, a small river in Tazewell and Giles counties, which rises
in the latter, and interlocking sources with those of Clinch and Big Sandy,

flows thence N. E. down a mountain valley into New river, which it enters
about five miles above the influx of Greenbrier.

Cheat river, a considerable branch of the Monongahela, rises on the border
of Randolph and Pocahontas counties, interlocks with Elk and Greenbrier
branches of the Great Kanawha, and after uniting with the south branch
of the Potomac, flows thence by a general northern course 70 miles, over
Randolph into Preston county, inflecting in the latter county to N. N. W.
forty miles to its junction with the Monongahela, at the S. W. angle of Fayette
county, Pennsylvania. The valley of Cheat lies between those of Monongahela
on the west, Potomac east, and Youghioghany east. The length
of this valley is about 100 miles, mean breadth not more than 18, and its area
about 1800 square miles. Cheat river is 200 yards wide at its mouth, and
100 yards at the Dunkard's settlement,—it is navigable 60 miles higher for
boats, except in dry seasons. The boundary between Virginia and Pennsylvania
crosses it, three or four miles above its mouth.

Chickahominy river rises between the vallies of the Pamunkey and
James rivers, about 20 miles N. W. from Richmond; it flows thence S. E. by
E.—having the counties of Henrico and Charles City on the right, and
Hanover, New Kent, and James City counties on the left; it falls into James
river after a comparative course of 60 miles.

Chesapeake bay, a deep gulf, opening from the Atlantic ocean, between
capes Henry and Charles; lat. 37° and long 1° east from Washington,
intersecting in the mouth of the bay, near midway between the capes, which
are about 15 miles asunder. The mouth of this fine sheet of water extends
westward 20 miles to the mouth of James river. Curving rapidly, above
the influx of James river, the Chesapeake extends almost directly north over
one degree of latitude, with a mean breadth of 20 miles, having received
from the westward James, York, Rappahannock, and Potomac rivers, and
from the opposite side, Pocomoke and Nantikoke rivers. Widened by the
union of so many tributaries, the Chesapeake is upwards of 40 miles wide
from the mouth of the Potomac to that of Pocomoke, and about 35 from the
most southern capes of the Potomac to the influx of Nantikoke river. Above
the entrance of the two latter streams, the main bay narrows to a mean
width of about 10 miles, and at some places under 5 miles, but with an elliptic
curve to the westward 115 miles to its termination, at the mouth of Susquehannah
river, having received from the westward above the Potomac,
the Patuxent, Patapsco, Gunpowder and Bash rivers, and from the eastward
Nantikoke, Choptank, St. Michaels, Chester, Sassafras and Elk rivers. The
entire length of Chesapeake bay is 185 miles; and it may be doubted whether
any other bay of the earth, is, in proportion to extent, so much diversified
by confluent streams as is the Chesapeake.

In strictness of geographical language, it is, however, only a continuation
of Susquehannah river, of which primary stream all the other confluents of
Chesapeake are branches. In the main bay the depth of water continues
sufficient for the navigation of the largest ships of war to near the mouth of
Susquehannah; and in Potomac that depth is preserved to Alexandria. In
the other tributary rivers large vessels are arrested before reaching the head
of tide water. If taken in its utmost extent, including the Susquehannah
valley, the Chesapeake basin forms a great physical limit; to the S. W.
with few exceptions, the rivers, bays and sounds, are shallow, and comparatively
unnavigable; but with the Chesapeake commences deep harbors,
which follow at no great distance from each other, to the utmost limits of

the Atlantic coast of the United States. The entire surface drained into this
immense reservoir amounts to near 70,000 square miles.

We know of no place in which we can better introduce an article upon the
Chesapeake Peninsula, a natural section of the United States, the peculiar
features of which are generally lost or confused among the political subdivisions
of our country. This physical section is bounded by the Atlantic
ocean S. E., by Chesapeake bay W., by Delaware bay N. E. and united to
the main continent by an isthmus, now traversed on the north by the Chesapeake
and Delaware canal. That work has in fact insulated the peninsula,
and given it water boundaries on all sides. Thus restricted, this peninsula
extends from Cape Charles N. lat. 37° 8′ to the Chesapeake and Delaware
canal at N. lat. 39° 32′. Greatest length very nearly in a direction north
and south 182 miles. The general form is that of an elongated ellipse,
which, in component material, features, and elevation, differs in nothing
essential from the Atlantic islands scattered along the coast of the United
States. Chesapeake bay is itself divided between Virginia and Maryland;
the shores on both sides south of the Potomac and Pocomoke rivers belong
to the former, and to the northward to the latter State. The southern part
of the peninsula is entirely in Virginia, and is a long, narrow promontory,
70 miles, by 8 to 10 miles wide. Above Pocomoke bay the peninsula
widens, and after an intermediate distance of 33 miles, is equally divided
between the States of Maryland and Delaware. In the widest part, between
Cape Henlopen, Sussex county, Delaware, and the western part of Talbot,
Maryland, the width is 70 miles, but narrowing towards both extremes, the
mean breath is about 27; area 4900 square miles. The surface is generally
level or very gently undulating. The ocean and Chesapeake shores are strongly
contrasted. Along the former, are narrow and low islands, with shallow
sounds, and no stream issuing from the land of any consequence. The
opposite shore of the Chesapeake is in an especial manner indented by innumerable
bays, and compared with the confined width of the peninsula, rivers
of great magnitude of volume. The character of the Atlantic is extended
along the Delaware bay; and entirely round the peninsula, much of the soil
is liable to diurnal or occasional submersion from the tides.

The general slope is southwestward as demonstrated by the course of the
rivers Pocomoke, Nantikoke, Choptank, Chester, Sassafras, and Elk. Politically
it contains all Sussex, Kent, and more than one-half of New Castle
county, of Delaware, all Worcester, Somerset, Dorchester, Talbot, Caroline,
Queen Ann, and Kent, and one-third of Cecil county, of Maryland, with all
Accomack and Northampton counties, of Virginia.

Chowan river, is in North Carolina, but formed by the union of three
streams of Virginia, the Meherin, Nottoway, and Blackwater rivers:

The Meherin rises in Charlotte county, Virginia, 1° 30′ west from Washington
City, lat 37°, between the vallies of Roanoke and Appomattox, and
flowing thence S. E. by E. by comparative courses 80 miles, passes into
North Carolina between Northampton and Gates counties, and 20 miles
farther unites with the Nottoway, above Winton, between Gates and Hertford
counties.

The Nottoway derives its remote sources from Prince Edward county,
Virginia, between those of Meherin and Appomatox. In a general eastern
course of 70 miles, the Nottoway separates Lunenburg, Brunswick and
Greensville counties from Nottoway, Dinwiddie and Sussex, and flows into
the central parts of the latter. Thence inclining S. E. 40 miles it receives

Blackwater river almost on the boundary line between Virginia and North
Carolina. Below the junction of the Nottoway and Blackwater, the name
of the former, and course of the latter, are preserved, and about 10 miles
within North Carolina and in Gates county, meet the Meherin to form
Chowan river.

A tide water river, or more correctly a bay, the Chowan, gradually
widens, but still retaining a moderate breadth, 25 miles to the influx of Bemer's
creek, there bends to near a southern course and more rapidly widens
for 25 miles to its junction with Roanoke, at the head of Albemarle sound.
Lat. 36°, passes up Albemarle sound, and intersects the eastern point of
Bertie county, North Carolina, between the mouths of Chowan and Roanoke,
0° 20′ long east of Washington City.

Including all its tributaries, the Chowan drains an area of 3,500 square
miles, which, as a physical section, comprises the northeastern part of the
basin of Roanoke. As a commercial channel, the Chowan, Nottoway, and
Blackwater extend almost directly from the mouth of Roanoke to that of
James river. There is at all seasons sufficient depth of water to admit sloops
of war to Murfreesboro' on Meherin, about 10 miles above the entrance
of Nottoway river.

Clinch river of Virginia and Tennessee, the great northeastern constituent
of Tennessee river, rises in Tazewell county, Virginia, and flows
thence by a general course of S. W. over Russell and Scott counties, 90
miles. Entering Tennessee, Clinch separates Claiborne county from Hawkins,
Granger and Anderson, Campbell from Anderson, and thence traversing
the latter, enters Roan, and unites with the Tennessee at Kingston, after
an entire comparative course of 180 miles. In the south part of Campbell
county Clinch receives from the N. E. Powell's river. The latter rising
in Russell county, Virginia, issues thence in a direction almost parallel to
the Clinch; traverses Lee county of Virginia, enters Tennessee, crossing
Claiborne and Campbell counties, joins the Clinch at Grantsboro, after a
comparative course of 90 miles. A short distance above its junction with
Tennessee river, the Clinch receives from the N. W. Emery's river. It
may be remarked that the course of the higher branches of Emery's river is
directly the reverse of that of Clinch and Powell's river. Uniting the vallies
of Emery's and Clinch river, the whole valley is about 220 miles long; but
the width is contracted comparatively, and fully estimated at 20 miles; area
4400 square miles.

In all their respective courses, Clinch and Holston pursue a parallel direction,
in few places 20 miles asunder, each receiving short creeks, from an
intervening mountain chain. On the opposite or right side, Clinch in succession
interlocks sources with those of Great Sandy, Kentucky and Cumberland
rivers. The relative elevation of the vallies of Clinch and Holston
differ but little from each other, and each stream above their junction, must
have, from their remote fountains, a fall of 1000 or 1200 feet.

Coal river, in western Virginia, rises in Logan county by two branches,
called relatively Great and Little Coal rivers. The former rises in the western
spurs of the Appalachian ridges, flows N. W. out of Logan into Kanawha
county, receives Little Coal river from the S. W. and finally falls
into the right side of Great Kanawha and Guyandot rivers. [See Kan. co.]

Craig's creek, or, more correctly, Craig's river, is the extreme S. W.
tributary of James river, rises in Giles and Montgomery counties, Virginia,
interlocking sources with a branch of Great Kanawha, and with the extreme

higher sources of Roanoke; and flowing thence to the N. E. over Botetourt
county, falls into James river after a comparative course of 40 miles.

Cowpasture river, Virginia, rising in the mountain valley between the
Kittatinny and Warm Spring mountain, interlocking sources with the south
branch of Potomac, but flowing in an opposite direction S. S. W. falling
into, or joining Jackson's river, to form James river, after a comparative
course of 50 miles.

Dismal Swamp. This remarkable swamp extends from north to south
nearly thirty miles; and averages from east to west nearly ten; it lies partly
in Virginia, and partly in North Carolina. Five navigable rivers, and some
creeks rise in it; of the rivers, two flow into Virginia,—south branch of
Elizabeth river, and south branch of Nansemond,—and three into North
Carolina,—the North river, the North West river, and the Pequimonds.
The sources of all of these streams are hidden in the swamp, and no traces
of them appear above ground. From this it appears, that there must be
plentiful subterraneous fountains to supply these streams,—or the soil must
be filled perpetually with the water drained from the higher lands which
surround it. The latter hypothesis is most probable, because the soil of the
Swamp is a complete quagmire, trembling under the feet, and filling immediately
the impression of every step with water. It may be penetrated to a
great distrance by thrusting down a stick, and whenever a fire is kindled
upon it, after the layer of leaves and rubbish is burned through, the coals
sink down, and are extinguished.

The eastern skirts of the Dismal Swamp are overgrown with reeds, ten
or twelve feet high, interlaced every where with thorny bamboo briars,
which render it almost impossible to pass. Among these are found, here
and there, a cypress, and white cedar, which last is commonly mistaken for
the jumper. Towards the south, there is a very large tract covered with
reeds, without any trees, which being constantly green and waving in the
wind, is called the green sea. An ever-green shrub, called the gall-bush,
grows plentifully throughout, but especially on the borders, it bears a berry
which dies a black color, like the gall of an oak,—and hence its name.

Near the middle of the Swamp, the trees grow much closer, both the
cypress and cedar; and being always green and loaded with large tops, are
much exposed to the wind, and easily blown down, in this boggy place,
where the soil is too soft to afford sufficient he'd to the roots. From these
causes, the passage is nearly always obstructed by trees, which lay piled in in
heaps, and riding upon each other; and the snags left in them pointing in
every direction, render it very difficult to clamber over them.

On the western border of the Dismal Swamp, is a pine swamp, above a
mile in breadth, the greater part of which is covered to the depth of the
knee with water: the bottom, however, is firm, and though the pines growing
upon it are very large and tall, yet they are not easily blown down by
the wind; so that this swamp may be passed without any hinderance, save
that occasioned by the depth of the water. With all of these disadvantages,
the Dismal Swamp, though disagreeable to the other senses, is, in many
places, pleasant to the eye, on account of the perpetual verdure which makes
every season like the spring, and every month like May. (See a more particular
description of Dismal Swamp, Norfolk county).

Dan river, belongs partly to Virginia, and partly to North Carolina, it
drains the greater part of Granville, Person, Caswell, Rockingham and
Stokes counties, of the latter state, and of Patrick, Henry, Pittsylvania, and

Halifax counties, of the former state. The extreme western sources of Dan
river are in Patrick county, Virginia, and in the S. E. spurs of the Blue
Ridge. The general course almost due east along the intermediate borders
of North Carolina and Virginia, to where the four counties of Pittsylvania,
Halifax, Person and Caswell meet. Here entering and flowing in Virginia
N. E. by E., falls into the Roanoke at Clarksville, having a mean breadth
of about 33 miles. This river drains 3,960 square miles.

Dividing creek, a small stream of Virginia, forming for a few miles the
boundary between Lancaster and Northumberland counties, and then falling
into the Chesapeake.

Elizabeth river, rises by numerous small branches in Princess Ann
and Norfolk counties, flows to the N. W. opening into a wide estuary, terminating
in the mouth of James river. The entire length of Elizabeth river
is only about 25 miles, but it gains importance as forming the fine harbor
of Norfolk, admitting to that port vessels of 18 feet draught, and again as
constituting with the Dismal Swamp canal and Pasquotank river, a chain
of inland navigation from Chesapeake bay to Albemarle sound.

Elk river, in western Virginia, rises amid the Appalachian ridges in
Randolph and Pocahontas counties, interlocking sources with those of Monongahela,
Little Kanawha, Wheat, Greenbrier and Gauley rivers. Leaving
Randolph and Pocahontas, and traversing Nicholas and Kanawha counties,
it finally is lost in Great Kanawha at Charleston, after a comparative
western course of 100 miles.

Gauley river, rises in Randolph, Pocahontas, and Greenbrier counties,
by numerous creeks which unite in Nicholas, and flow by a course a little
south of west, falling into the right side of the Great Kanawha river, at the
head of the Great Falls. The valley of Gauley river is about 60 miles
long, and lies between those of Elk and Greenbrier rivers.

Greenbrier river rises in the northern part of Pocahontas county,
over which it flows, and entering and traversing Greenbrier county, falls
into Great Kanawha, after a comparative southwestern course of 90 miles.
Greenbrier has its remote sources in the same ridges with those of Cheat
river branch of Monongahela, and those of the South branch of the Potomac.
The valley of Greenbrier lies between those of James and Gauley
rivers. It is an elevated region. The water level is from actual admeasurement,
1,333 feet at the efflux of Greenbrier into Great Kanawha. The
mean height of the farms above the ocean level cannot fall much, if any,
short of 1,500 feet.

Guyandotte river rises in Logan county, from the northwestern foot
of the Great Flat Top mountain, and flowing thence N. N. W. draining a
valley between those of Great Kanawha and Sandy rivers, enters Cabell
county and falls into Ohio river below Barboursville, after a comparative
course of about 100 miles.

Guyandotte, Little, falls into Ohio river between the mouths of Guyandotte
and Great Kanawha rivers, and for some miles above its mouth constitutes
the boundary between Mason and Cabell counties.

Hampton Roads, local name of the mouth of James river opposite the
mouths of Nansemond and Elizabeth rivers. Towards the Chesapeake
bay, Hampton Roads is defined on the north by Old Point Comfort, and on
the south by Point Willoughby, within James river the termination is indefinite.
This sheet of water is sufficiently deep for the largest ships of
war. The United States commissioners, appointed to examine the lower

part of Chesapeake bay in 1818, reported, that although extensive, Hampton
Roads admitted the erection of adequate defences against an enemy's fleet.

Holston river rises in the Alleghany mountains, in Virginia, and flows
S. S. W. into Tennessee, it then takes a course more to the south to Knoxville,
and 35 miles below that town, it unites with the Clinch, and the united
streams take the name of the Tennessee. It is navigable for boats of 25
tons burthen, more than 100 miles. On its banks are several iron-works;
and the adjacent country abounds with iron-ore, and contains several leadmines.
Valuable salt works exist near its sources.

Jackson river, the principal constituent of James river, rises by two
branches, the north and south forks, in the southern part of Pendleton county,
Virginia. Flowing thence southwestward and nearly parallel, and between
lateral chains of mountains, the two branches traverse Bath county, and entering
Alleghany, incline towards each other and unite, but the united stream
still pursues a southwestern course, receiving Dunlop's creek from the west
and Pott's creek from the south, after a comparative course from the source
in Pendleton of about 50 miles. With the junction of Pott's creek, the
whole stream inflects very abruptly to N. E. and flowing in that direction
15 miles, through rugged mountain passes, unites with Cow Pasture river
to form James river. The valley of Jackson's river, is an elevated region.
At Covington, the county seat of Alleghany county, where Dunlop's
creek falls into Jackson's river, the water surface is 1,238 feet above the
Atlantic level; it is therefore probable, that the greatest part of the arable
surface of the adjacent country exceeds a comparative height of 1,500 feet.
Lat 38°, and long 3° west, Washington, interest in the western part of
Bath county, about 6 miles north of the junction of the two main branches
of Jackson's river.

James river. The two streams which unite to form this fine river, may
be seen under the he head of Jackson and Cow Pasture rivers. Below the
junction of its two constituents, the united water is first known as James
river, which forcing a passage through between Pott's and Mill mountains,
enters Botetourt, and assumes a southern course 10 miles, to where it receives
Craig's creek from the south, and inflecting to S. S. E. flows in that
direction 15 miles, thence abruptly turns to N. E. by E. 20 miles, to the western
foot of Blue Ridge, and the reception of North river from Augusta
and Rockbridge counties. Assuming a S. E. course of 28 miles, James
river, now a fine navigable stream, traverses a gap of Blue Ridge about 15
miles N. E. the Peaks of Otter, and in a distance of 30 miles, separating
Amherst from Bedford and Campbell counties, and traversing another lateral
chain of mountains near Lynchburg, again turns to N. E. Continuing
the latter course 40 miles and separating Amherst and Nelson from Campbell
and Buckingham counties, James river assumes a course a little south
of east 70 miles by comparative course, having on the left the counties of
Albemarle, Fluvanna, Goochland and Henrico, and on the right the counties
of Buckingham, Cumberland, Powhatan, and Chesterfield, to the head
of tide water and the lower falls at Richmond.

Meeting the tide, James river, similar to most of the Atlantic rivers of the
United States generally, widens and presenting rather the features of a bay
than those of a river, turns to a little E. of S. E. 90 miles by comparative
courses, finally merges into Chesapeake bay, between Point Willoughby
and Old Point Comfort. The entire length of James river, from its source
in Pendleton, to its efflux into Chesapeake, is 368 miles, but following the

actual meanders it is probable that this stream flows not much if any less
than 500 miles.

The valley of James river, including all its tributaries, lies between lat
35° 40′ and 38° 20′, and in long. extends near 1° east to 3° 40′ west from
Washington. A line in a S. S. W. direction from Old Point Comfort to
the Alleghany mountain will pass along very near the middle of this valley
225 miles. The broadest part is along the extreme sources, from the
fountains of Jackson's river to those of Craig's creek 90 miles, but the
mean width amounts to about 45 miles and the area to 10,125 square miles.

In the natural state James river affords at, and a few miles above, its
mouth, depth of water for ships of any required draught, but the depth
gradually shallows, so that only vessels of 130 tons can reach Rockets, or
the port of Richmond. Though much has been designed above tide water
in meliorating the navigation, little has been actually accomplished. A
canal connects the tide below, and the navigable water above the
falls at Richmond. The following relative heights will show the gradual
rise of the James river. Columbia at the mouth of Rivanna 178 feet;
Scottsville, at the southeastern angle of Albemarle county, and below the
southeast chain of the Appalachian system 255 feet; Lynchburg, also below
the southeast mountain 500 feet; Pattonsburg, at the great bend above
Blue Ridge 806 feet; Covington, at the junction of Dunlop's creek and
Jackson's river, 1,222 feet; highest spring tributary to Craig's creek, 2,498
feet. Those heights are only the elevation of the water, and at every point
must fall short of that of the arable soil. Without any great risk of error,
an allowance of winter temperature equal to 6 degrees of Fahrenheit may
be made between the extremes of this valley on the same latitude.

Kanawha, Great, river. North Carolina and Virginia, has the most
remote source in Ashe county of the former, between the Blue Ridge and
main Appalachian chain, there known by the name of Iron mountain; the
two higher branches, after draining the northern part of Ashe, unite near
the boundary between North Carolina and Virginia, and continuing their
original course to the N. E. by N., enters Grayson county of the latter
state, breaks through the Iron mountain between Grayson and Wythe;
winds over the latter and Montgomery; thence inflecting to the N. N. W.
traverses Walker's and Peter's mountains. Below the latter chain, the
course of N. N. W. is continued to the mouth of Gauley river having received
also from the northeast Greenbrier.

Above Gauley river, the main volume of Kanawha is called New river;
but receiving the Gauley, and turning to N. W., this now large stream,
known as the Great Kanawha, is still farther augmented from the north by
Elk river, and from the south by Coal river, falls into Ohio river at Point
Pleasant, after a comparative course of 280 miles, 100 above Walker's
mountain, 100 from the pass through Walker's mountain to the mouth of
Gauley river, and 80 from the mouth of Gauley to the Ohio.

The higher branches of New river have interlocking sources with those
of Catawba and Yadkin on the S. E., and with those of Watauga and Holston
to the northwest. Below the Iron mountains the interlocking souces are
with those of Clinch and Sandy to the west, those of Roanoke to the east, and
those of James river N. E., as far down as the gorge of Peter's mountain,
westward of the latter pass. Greenbrier, coming in from the north has its
sources in the same region with those of the Potomac on the northeast, and
with those of the Monongahela to the northward. The valley of Kanawha

proper, below Gauley river, lies generally between the valley of Guyandotte
on the S. W., and that of Little Kanawha N. E., though the sources of Elk
river, also reach the vicinity of those of Monongahela.

The entire valley of Great Kanawha, including that of New river, extends
lat 36° 15′ in Ashe county, North Carolina, to 38° 52′ at the junction of
Kanawha and Ohio, and in long 2° 43′ at the higher source of Greenbrier,
to 5° 08′ west of Washington city. The length of this valley from the
Blue Ridge between Patrick and Montgomery counties, Virginia, in a
N. W. direction is 180 miles, the utmost breadth from the sources of New
river, to those of Greenbrier is 180, but the mean width is about 60, and the
area may be stated at 10,800 square miles.

The most remarkable feature in the valley of the Great Kanawha, as a
physical section, is relative height. At the mouth of Sinking creek, between
Walker's and Peter's mountains, 120 miles by comparative courses below
the sources, the water level is 1,585 feet above the Atlantic tides; at the
mouth of Greenbrier 1,333, and at the mouth into Ohio 525 feet. Comparing
the fall from Sinking creek to the mouth of Greenbrier 252 feet in
30 miles direct, that above Sinking creek must be 900 feet at least, consequently,
the higher branches of New river, in Ashe county, must rise at a
comparative height of upwards of 2,500 feet.

Little Kanawha, rises in Lewis county, and flowing N. W. by W., enters
Wood, and falls into the Ohio, at Parkersburg, after a comparative
course of 90 miles. The valley of this river is nearly commensurate with
Wood and Lewis counties, and has that of Great Kanawha south, Middle
Island creek to the north, and that of Monongahela, N. E. is 150 yards
wide at the mouth. It yields a navigation of ten miles only; perhaps its
northern branch called Junius' creek, which interlocks with the west fork
of Monongahela, may one day admit a shorter passage from the latter into
the Ohio.

Little river, of Montgomery county, rises in the western vallies of the
Blue Ridge, and flowing to the N. W., about 25 miles comparative course,
falls into New river, 12 miles S. W. by W. Christiansburg.

Mattapony river has its extreme source on the eastern border of Orange
county, near the Rapid Ann, about 25 miles westward Fredericksburg, but
the most numerous of its creeks are in Spottsylvania. These unite within,
and traverse Caroline, and thence forming a boundary between King William
and King and Queen, unite with the Pamunky, to form York river,
after a comparative southeastern course of ten miles. The valley of the
Mattapony lies between those of the Rappahannock and Pamunky, and is
traversed by N. lat 38° and the meridian of Washington.

Matchapungo Inlet, on the coast of the Atlantic, between Hog and
Prout Islands, Northampton county. It opens into a sheet or small gulf,
called Broad Water, 28 miles N. N. E. cape Charles, lat 37° 20′.

Meherin river, of Virginia and North Carolina, deriving its most remote
sources from Charlotte, but rising principally in Lunenburg and Mecklenburg
counties, and uniting on the western margin of Brunswick. Continuing
its original course S. E. by E. over Brunswick and Greenville, and
thence seperating a part of Greenville from Southampton, it enters North
Carolina, between Northampton and Gates counties, and joins the Nottaway
to form the Chowan, between Gates and Hertford counties. The entire
comparative course of the Meherin is about 95 miles, but the valley is narrow,
not exceeding 20 miles width at any part, (mean width hardly 10,) area

about 900 square miles, lying between the vallies of Roanoke and Nottaway.

Monongahela river, in Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania, is formed
by Monongahela proper, Tygart's Valley river, Cheat river, and the Youghioghany.
The Cheat is in fact the main stream, having its remote source
in the southern part of Randolph county, Virginia, at lat 38° 27′, interlocking
sources with those of Green river, and Jackson's branch of James river.
The remote sources of Tygait's Valley river, are nearly as far south as those
of Cheat, and also in Randolph county. The mountain ridge from which
both streams rise is known locally as Greenbrier mountain, and the valleys
from which the higher sources are derived, must be at least 2,500 feet elevated
above tide water in Chesapeake bay.

Monongahela proper, is the western branch, rising in Lewis county, Virginia,
with interlocking sources with those of Tygart's Valley and little
Kanawha. The three branches near their sources, pursue a general northern
course, but the two western, gradually approach each other, and
unite at lat 39° 28′, where they form a point of seperation between Harrison
and Monongalia counties. Thence assuming a northern course over the
latter county, finally leave Virginia, and form a junction with Cheat on the
boundary between Fayette and Green counties, Pennsylvania.

The Cheat in the highest part of its course, flows along a mountain valley,
in a northern direction, but gradually inclining to northwestward, as already
noticed under the head of Cheat river. Below the junction of the main
branches, the Monongahela, by a rather circuitous channel, pursues a general
northern course over Pennsylvania, about 50 miles, comparative length to
its junction with Youghioghany, 11 miles S. E. of Pittsburg.

The Youghioghany is a considerable branch, having its remote sources
in the western part of Alleghany county, Maryland Flowing thence
northwardly, enters Pennsylvania, and separating for some few miles, Somerset,
from Fayette county, receives a large tributary from the eastward;
Casselman's river, and turning to N. N. W. about 50 miles, comparative
course, is lost in the Monongahela at MacKeesport. Augmented by the
Youghioghany, the Monongahela below the junction, assumes the course of
the former, 18 miles by the channel, but only 11 direct distance to Pittsburg,
where it unites with the Alleghany to form the Ohio. The general course
of the Monongahela is almost exactly north, and almost as exactly along
long 3° W. Washington, 150 miles by comparative distance. The widest
part of its valley lies nearly along the line between Pennsylvania and Virginia,
80 miles, the mean width 40, and area 6,000 square miles.

If we allow only 1,500 feet elevation to the arable country on the head
branches of Cheat, Pittsburg being elevated 678 feet, will give a descent of
822 feet to the valley of Monongahela. The extremes of lat are thus almost
exactly compensated by declivity, and explain why the seasons near Pittsburg
and in Randolph county, Virginia, differ but slightly.

Though the two eastern branches, Cheat and Youghioghany, rise in
mountain vallies, and the whole country dramed by all the tributaries of Monongahela
is very broken and rocky, direct falls are rare and of no great elevation
when they occur. Cheat river, is navigable through Monongalia
and Preston, into Randolph county; both branches of Monongahela proper,
above their junction, and Youghioghany to Ohio, have falls. The whole valley
has gained recent increase of importance as being part of the route or
routes of proposed lines of canal improvement.

Monongahela river is 400 yards wide at its mouth; at the mouth of the

Youghioghaney 12 or 15 miles higher up, it is 300 yards wide; and continues
of that width to the mouth of Cheat river, a distance of 90 miles by water,
but only 58 by land. In this space the navigation is frequently interrupted
by rapids, but are passable by boats when the river rises a few feet. From
that point it admits light boats, except in dry seasons 65 miles further, to the
head of Tygart's valley,—presenting only some falls of a few feet, and lessening
in width to 20 yards. The western fork is navigable in winter 10 or 15
miles, towards the northern branch of the Little Kanawha, to which a good
wagon road might be made. The Youghioghany is the principal branch of
this river. This branch passes through the Laurel mountain about 300
miles from its mouth, and is that far, from 300 to 150 yards wide, and the
navigation much obstructed in dry weather by rapids and shoals. In its
passage through the mountain the fall is very great, admitting no navigation
for ten miles to the Turkey Foot. Thence to the great crossing, about
20 miles, it is again navigable, except in dry seasons, and is at that place 20
yards wide. The sources of this river are divided from those of the Potomac
by the Alleghany mountain. From the falls at which it intercepts the
Laurel mountain to Fort Cumberland, the head of navigation on the Potomac, is
40 miles of very mountaneous road. Willis' creek, at the mouth of which
was Fort Cumberland, is 30 or 40 yards wide, but beyond that, there is no
navigation.

Nansemond river rises in Isle of Wight and Nansemond counties,
but chiefly in the latter. It opens by a comparatively wide bay into Hampton
Roads, and is navigable for vessels of 250 tons to Sleepy Hole, for those
of 100, to Suffolk, the county town of Nansemond, and for those of 25 tons
to Milner's.

Nottoway river, of Virginia and North Carolina, has its most remote
source in Prince Edward county. Flowing thence S. S. E. between Nottaway
and Lunenburg counties, between Dinwiddie and Brunswick, turns
to eastward between Greensville and the western part of Sussex. Entering
the latter, and first curving northward winds to S. E., and traversing Sussex
and Southampton counties, receives Blackwater river from the north, and
entering Gates county, North Carolina, bends to S. W. 10 miles to its junction
with Meherin, to form Chowan river. The entire length of Nottaway
by comparative courses is 110 miles. The Nottoway valley is about 100
miles, by 20 mean width, comprising great part of Nottaway, Dinwiddie,
Sussex, Surry, and Southampton counties, and a smaller part of Lunenburg,
Brunswick, Greensville, Prince George, Isle of Wight, and Nansemond
counties, and a minor part of Gates county, North Carolina.

Occoquan river rises in Loudon, Fairfax, and Fauquier counties, traverses
and drains the western part of Prince William county, and thence
forming the boundary between Prince William and Fairfax counties, falls
into the Potomac, about 25 miles below Washington City, and nearly opposite
Indian Point. [See Prince William county.]

Ohio forms the boundary of Virginia for 355 miles. It is in some respects
the most remarkable river upon earth. The physical section of the
earth drained by it lies between lat 34° 12′ and 42° 27′, and long 1° and
12° west of Washington City. The course of the Ohio proper, from the
sources of Alleghany to its junction with the Mississippi, is by calculation
59° 30′ west, 680 statute miles.

The form of the valley of the Ohio approaches, in a very remarkable
manner, that of a regular ellipse, of which a line drawn from its most northern

to its most southern sources, from Orleans creek, Cataraugus county,
New York, to Bear Grass creek, Marion county, Alabama, 750 statute
miles,—would be the transverse diameter, and another line extending from
the Blue Ridge, where the sources of the Great Kanawha and those of
Watauga branch of Tennessee rise, to the northwestern sources of the Wabash,
450 miles, would be the congugate axis. Measured by the rhombs
following the elements in the following table, the area comes out more than
200,000 square miles.

Table of the extent in square miles of the valley of Ohio river:

                   

						square miles.
Between lat.	34°	and	35°	2¼	Rhombs,	8,986
Between lat.	35		36	6½	Rhombs,	25,655
Between lat.	36		37	7½	Rhombs,	29,205
Between lat.	37		38	8½	Rhombs,	32,700
Between lat.	38		39	8½	Rhombs,	32,250
Between lat.	39		40	8¾	Rhombs,	32,742
Between lat.	40		41	8	Rhombs,	29,488
Between lat.	41		42	2½	Rhombs,	9,085
Aggregate extent in square miles,						200,111

Allowing the greatest length to be 750 miles, the mean width will be 267
very nearly, or the mean breadth amounts to within a trifling fraction of
one-third of the greatest length, a compactness seldom equalled in rivers.

If the Alleghany is regarded as the primary and remote constituent of
Ohio, this great stream rises by numerous creeks in McKean and Potter
counties, Pennsylvania, and Alleghany and Cataraugus counties, New York.
Becoming navigable near the line of demarcation between the two states,
the stream, with partial windings, pursues the general course already stated,
to its junction with the Mississippi, affording a natural navigable channel of
between 1,200 and 1,300 miles. The opposing inclined plains of Ohio valley
are of unequal extent, nearly in the proportion of two to three, the larger
falling from the Appalachian system of mountains, and containing 120,000
square miles.

In their features also the two Ohio plains differ essentially. The southeastern,
declining from a mountainous outline, has a comparatively rapid
slope. The most elevated table land from which the eastern tributaries flow,
is that where rise the sources of Clinch, Holston, and Great Kanawha,
about 2,500 feet. The Appalachian table land declines in relative elevation
both to north and south of this nucleus, but there is no one part from the
sources of Alleghany and Genesee to those of Tennessee and Coosa, through
7° of lat but which exceeds 1,000 feet.

The elevation of Ohio at Pittsburg, where the Alleghany and Monongahela
unite, is 678 feet, and that of the low water at the confluence of Ohio
and Mississippi 283 feet; of course the Ohio below Pittsburg, has a fall of
395 feet in 948 miles, the length of the intermediate channel. The left tributaries
must have, from the preceding data, a descent of from 1,000 to
2,200 feet. Down this rapid declivity, advancing from north to south, are
found the streams of Clarion, Kiskiminitas, Monongahela, Great Kanawha,
Sandy, Kentucky, Cumberland and Tennessee, and several of lesser length
of course, whose sources do not reach the Appalachian vallies.

It may well excite surprise, that along this steep plain, direct falls are not
frequent, and where they do occur are of moderate direct pitch.

To an eye sufficiently elevated, and powers of vision sufficiently enlarged,
the whole valley of Ohio would appear one immense declivity, falling very
nearly at right angles to the general range of the Appalachian system, and
the rivers would appear to have cut deep channels seldom in a direction corresponding
to the plane of general descent.

Of these channels that of Ohio would appear as the principal. Persons
competent have carefully measured the height of the hills, in the vicinity
of Pittsburg, and found them about 460 feet above the low water level of the
rivers, or 1,138 feet above the level of the Atlantic tides. Above Pittsburg
to the hills, which rise like mountains from lake Erie, the ascent is at least
400 feet, and below Pittsburg the fall to the Mississippi has been shown to
be 395 feet. Without therefore estimating mountain ridges, the great inclined
plain of Ohio has a descent of upwards of a foot to the statute mile,
but what is something remarkable, the rivers, and particularly the Ohio itself,
do not fall gradually with the planes of their courses. The actual
channel from Pittsburg to the mouth is 948 statute miles, and the fall 4,716
inches, or not quite five inches per mile.

The waters in effect have abraded their channels, deeper toward their
sources than in proportion to length of course. It is this circumstance
which has contributed to give to the Ohio proper, the appearance of flowing
in a deep and immense ravine. The difference of climate arising from difference
of level, frequently exceeding a degree of latitude in less than a mile,
and radiated heat, with an exuberant alluvial soil, giving in spring a precocious
vegetation along the river bank, have superinduced great misunderstanding
respecting the temperature and seasons of this region.

Descending the Ohio, say from Pittsburg, the scenery along the banks
and hills, is in an eminent degree picturesque and varied, but these fine features
imperceptibly fade away, and long before reaching the Mississippi, totally
disappear, and leave a narrow horizontal ring sweeping round the
heavens, formed by the trees along the banks.

As a navigable channel, few, if any other rivers of the globe, equal the
Ohio. In the higher part of its course, the navigation is annually more or
less impeded in winter by ice, and in autumn by a want of water. Impediment
from ice prevails in all its course, but below the influx of Kanawha,
drought is of less injury, and below the rapids at Louisville, in a commercial
point of view, removed by a navigable canal.

The four most important of all mineral productions abound in the Ohio
valley, limestone, mineral coal, salt, and iron ore. Of all continuous bodies
of productive soil on earth, if climate and fertility are combined, the valley
of Ohio will, it is probable, sustain the most dense population. Not long
since there did not exist upon its immense surface 20,000 civilized human
beings. In 1831, it sustained about 3,000,000. Can the history of the
world afford any parallel to such increase?

Pamunkey river, the principal constituent of York river, is formed by
Pamunky proper and North Anna. The latter rises in Orange, the northern
part of Louisa and in Spottsylvania counties, and flowing thence
southeastward unites with the Pamunkey, between Caroline and Hanover
counties.

The Pamunky rises in the S. W. mountain, on the border between Albemarle
and Louisa, drains the southern and central part of Louisa, and
traversing Hanover, joins the North Anna. Below their junction, the united
waters, known by the name of Pamunky, preserve the original course

southeastward, about 45 miles comparative course, (but perhaps double
that distance by the bends,) to its junction with Mattapony to form York
river. The entire comparative length of Pamunkey, by either branch, is
about 90 miles. The broadest part of the valley but little exceeds 30 miles,
and is only about 15 mean width, area 1,300 square miles, lying between
those of James and Chickahominy on the right, and Mattopony on the
left.

Pig river, rises in the southeastern slope of the Blue Ridge, and
flowing thence eastward, between Black water and Irvine rivers, traverses
and drains the central part of Franklin county, and entering Pittsylvania,
turns to E. and falls into Roanoke, after a comparative course of 35
miles.

Pocatalico.—This river has its sources near the northern boundary of
the county of Kanawha, and flows through a body of forest land finely timbered:
much of it fertile, and sufficiently level for advantageous cultivation.
The alluvial lands on its borders, are generally rich, and of width sufficient
to form good farms. Pocatilico discharges itself into the Great
Kanawha, 20 miles below Charleston, and forty miles above the mouth of
the latter river; it is navigable by batteaux, which ascend from 20 to 30 miles,
and during the winter and spring months, large and heavy loaded boats
may descend with safety, as also rafts of timber of various descriptions.
Extensive beds of rich bituminous coal, are found near the Pocatalico, and
its branches, and iron ores apparently of good quality, are often dug out of
the hills.

Potomac river, of Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania. This river
above Blue Ridge, is formed by the north branch, distinctively called Potomac,
Patterson's river, South Branch, Cacapon, Back creek, Opequhan and
Sheandoah, from the southwestward, and by a series of bold, though comparatively
small streams from the northward. The stream to which the
name of Potomoc is first applied, rises in the Alleghany chain, opposite to
the sources of Cheat and Youghioghany branches of Monongahela, at lat.
39° 10′ long. from Washington city, 2° 30′ W. Flowing thence N. E. 30
miles, receives from the north, Savage river, and bending to S. E. 10 miles,
traverses one or two minor chains of mountains, and returning to N. E. 18
miles to the influx of Will's creek, from the north at Cumberland. Now a
considerable stream, by a very tortuous channel, but direct distance 15
miles to S. E., the Potomac below Cumberland, breaks through several
chains of mountains to the influx of South Branch. The latter is in length
of course, and area drained, the main branch. The various sources of this
mountain river originate in Pendleton county, Virginia, lat. 38° 25′, between
the Alleghany and Kittatinny chains. Assuming a general course
of N. E., the branches unite in Hardy county, near Moorfields, below
which, in a distance comparative course of 40 miles to its union with the N.
Branch, the South Branch receives no considerable tributary. The volume
formed by both branches, breaks through a mountain chain immediately below
their junction, and bending to N. E. by comparative distance of 25
miles, but by a very winding channel reaches its extreme northern point at
Hancock's town, lat. 39° 41′, and within less than two miles south of the
southern boundary of Pennsylvania. Passing Hancock's town the Potomac
again inflects to S. E., and as above winds by a very crooked channel, but
by comparative course of 35 miles to the influx of Shenandoah from the
southward.

Shenandoah is the longest branch of Potomac, having a comparative
length of 130 miles, and brings down a volume of water but little inferior
to that of the main stream. It has its most remote sources in Augusta
county, Virginia, interlocks sources with those of Great Calf Pasture
branch of James river, and by Blue Ridge, is separated from those of Rivanna,
as far south as lat. 37° 55′, almost exactly due west of the eutrance of Potomac
into Chesapeake bay. The elongated valley of Shenandoah is part
of the great mountain valley of Kittatinny, and comprises nearly all the
counties of Augusta, Rockingham, Page and Shenandoah, with the eastern
sections of Frederick and Jefferson. The upper valley of Potomac, including
that of Shenandoah is in length from S. W. to N. E. 160 miles, where
broadest 75 miles, but has a mean breadth of 50 miles, area 8,000
square miles. The water level of Potomac at Harper's Ferry is 288 feet
above tide water; therefore we may assume at 350 feet the lowest arable
land in the valley above the Blue Ridge. This is equivalent to a degree
of latitude on the aerial temperature at the lowest point of depression. So
rapid is the rise, however, in crossing the valley to the foot of Alleghany
mountain, that an allowance of 1,200 feet is rather too moderate an estimate
for the extremes of cultivated soil.

Passing the Blue Ridge, with partial windings, the Potomac continues
S. E. by comparative courses 50 miles to the lower falls and head of ocean
tides at Georgetown. Having in the intermediate distance received the
Monocacy river, from the north, and some minor creeks from the south;
like the Delaware, below Trenton, and the higher part of Chesapeake
bay, below the mouth of Susquehannah the Potomac, meeting the tide, bends
along the outer margin of the primitive rock. It is indeed very remarkable
that the three bends, in the three consecutive rivers, follow almost exactly
the same geographical line: or flow from head of tide water, S. W.—
the Delaware 60, Chesapeake 40, and Potomac 45 miles,—the latter a few
miles below the place at which it retires from the primitive rocks, reaches
within six miles of the Rappahannock, below Fradericksburg. The two
latter rivers not far from parallel to each other, assume a comparative course
75 miles to the N. E., the intermediate peninsula being no where above 22
miles wide, and the distance from the south side of the mouth of the Potomac,
to the north side of that of the Rappahannock, is only 20 miles.

Combining the two sections above and below the Blue Ridge, the whole
basin of the Potomac embraces an area of 12,950 square miles, extending
from lat. 37° 50′ to 40°, and in long. 0° 45′ E. to 2° 45′ W. of Washington
city. The winding of its tide water channel renders the navigation of the
Potomac bay (for such it is below George Town,) tedious though not dangerous.
The channel has sufficient depth to admit ships of the line of 74
guns to the navy yard at Washington.

With its defects and advantages as an agricultural and commercial section,—the
basin of the Potomac is a very interesting object in physical and
political geography;—deriving its sources from the main Appalachian
spine, the Potomac has worn its channel through the intervening chains to
their bases; and performed an immense disproportion of the necessary task
to effect a water rout into the valley of the Ohio,—such a rout has been
commenced under the name of Chesapeake and Ohio canal, and is yet in
progress. The Potomac is eight miles wide at its mouth, four and a half at
Nomony bay, three at Acquia, one and a half at Hollooing point, and one
and a half at Alexandria.

Its soundings are seven fathoms at its mouth, five at St. Georges island,
four and a half at Lower Matchodie, three at Swan's point and up to Alexandria,
thence 20 feet of water to the falls, which are 13 miles above Alexandria.
These falls are 15 miles in length, and of very great descent, and the
navigation above them for batteaux and canoes is so much interrupted as to
be little used, It is however used in a small degree up the Cohongoronta
branch as far as Cumberland, at the mouth of Wills's creek; and is
capable of being made navigable at no grerat expence. The Shenandoah
branch interlocks with the sources of James river, near the Blue Ridge.

Rappahannock river, formed by two branches, Hedgeman's and
Thornton's rivers, both deriving their remote sources from Blue Ridge.
Hedgeman's river, after a comparative course of 30 miles, between Fauquier
and Culpeper counties, receives Thornton's river from the latter, and the
united waters continuing the course of the former S. E. 20 miles, join the
Rapid Ann. A navigable river at the junction of its two main branches,
the Rappahannock, continues to the S. E. 10 miles to its lowest falls, where
it traverses the primitive ledge, and meets the ocean tides at Fredericksburg.
Similar to the Delaware, and all the large western tributaries of Chesapeake
bay, the Rappahannock turns after passing the primitive rock, but after a
short curve to the southward, this stream resumes a S. E. course, which
with a rather tortuous channel it maintains to Leeds, in Westmoreland county,
where it approaches to within five miles of Potomac, at the mouth of Mattox
creek. Gradually widening, and with the features of a long, narrow
bay of 55 miles, the Rappahannock by a S. S. E. course, is lost in Chesapeake
bay between Windmill and Stingray points. The tide ascends this
channel to the falls at Fredericksburg, something above 100 miles, admiting
vessels of considerable tonnage. In all the distance below the union
of its two main branches, it does not receive any accession above the size of
a small creek. The entire basin is 140 miles by a mean width of 20; area
2,800 square miles. Extending in lat. from 37° 34′ to 38° 44′, and in long
from 0° 41′ east to 1° 22′ west of Washington.

Rapid Ann river, deriving its remote sources from the Blue
Ridge, and flowing thence S. E. 20 miles across the valley, between
Blue Ridge and South East mountain, turns thence N. E. 15 miles to the
influx of Robertson's river from the N. W. Passing South East mountain
and inflecting to a general eastern course of 30 miles, it joins the Rappahannock
10 miles above Fredericksburg, after a comparative course of 65 miles.
In nearly the whole of its length Rapid Ann separates Orange county first
35 miles from Madison, and thence 25 from Culpeper. At their junction
it is superior in volume to Rappahannock; and exceeding also in length, of
course, the Rapid Ann is the main stream.

Rivanna river, a branch of James river, is navigable to its intersection
with the South West mountain, which is about 22 miles. The navigation
has lately been opened by dams and canals, and it is now navigable to Pireus,
within one mile and a quarter of Charlottesville.

Rock creek, a small stream of Maryland, and of the District of Columbia,
gains importance only as it separates the city of Washington from Georgetown.
This creek has its extreme source about four miles westward of Mechanicsville,
Montgomery county, Maryland, heading with the east branch
of Potomac river, at an elevation above tide water at Georgetown of 500
feet. The entire length of the creek, following its valley, is about 28 miles.

The fall being upwards of 17 feet to the mile, and that fall being in many
places far above the mean, renders it an excellent mill-stream.

Roanoke river, of Virginia and North Carolina. Taken in the utmost
extent, Roanoke basin is the same as Albemarle, and includes the sub-basins
or vallies of Roanoke proper, and Chowan river. Advancing from south
to north, all the rivers beyond the Roanoke, have their most remote fountains
on the Atlantic side of Blue Ridge; but with the Roanoke a new feature
appears. The Blue Ridge is pierced by that stream, which derives its
higher fountains from the main Alleghany chain in Montgomery county,
Virginia, and within eight miles of the main channel of New river, and at
an elevation without estimating the mountain ridges, of at least 2,000 feet
Issuing by numerous creeks from this elevated tract, and uniting into one
stream near the border between Montgomery and Botetourt counties, it is
here literally "The Rapid Roanoke," having at Salem, in the latter county,
fallen 1,000 feet in little more than 20 miles. At Salem the water level is
1,002 feet by actual admeasurement, above mean Atlantic tide. Below Salem
the river inflects 20 miles in an eastern course, to its passage through
Blue Ridge, and thence S. E. 25 miles to its passage through South East
mountain. Passing South East mountain between Bedford and Pittsylvania
counties, the now navigable volume sweeps by an elliptic curve to northward,
and round to S. E. 50 miles comparative course, to the influx of Dan
river, entering its right side from the west part. Below the junction of
these two rivers, the united waters in a course a little south of east 60
miles by comparative distance, reach tide water at Weldon, having fallen
by a lengthened cataract over the primitive ledge. About midway between
the influx of Dan river and Weldon, Roanoke leaves Virginia and enters
North Carolina. Mingling with the tide, the Roanoke by a very tortuous
channel, but by comparative course flows South East 50 miles, and thence
eastward 25 miles to its junction with Chowan river at the head of Albemarle
sound. The entire valley of Roanoke, if measured along the main
stream or Dan river is 250 miles, but the rivers wind over this space by
channels of much greater length. By comparative courses it is 155 miles
from Salem to Weldon, whilst from a report made by the Roanoke company,
the intermediate channel is 244 miles. Taking these proportions, the
length of this river by its meanders is about 400 miles. Including the whole
Albemarle basin, it is 290 miles from its outlet into the Atlantic ocean, to
the fountains of Roanoke in Alleghany mountain, but with the Chowan
and Dan vallies united to that of the principal river, the basin is comparatively
narrow, being only 80 miles where broadest, and not having a mean
breadth above 50 miles, or an area exceeding 14,500 square miles. It is
not, however, its extent which gives most interest to the Roanoke or Albemarle
basin; it is at once a fine physical section and physical limit. The
difference of arable level, amounts to at least 2,000 feet, and no two regions
of the earth can differ in every feature more than do the truly beautiful hills
and vales on each side of the Appalachian chains, from the stagnant marshes
and level plains towards the Atlantic ocean. Along the lower Roanoke
commences, advancing from the north the profitable cultivation of cotton,
the fig tree begins to appear, rice can be produced, and in summer the advance
towards the tropics is felt, and very distinctly seen on vegetation.
Ascending the basin, the aspect of the northern states gradually appears,
both on the features of nature and on cultivated vegetables. Wheat, rye,
and other small grain, with meadow grasses, and the apple, flourish. The

summers are cooler, and the winters have the severity suitable to relative
elevation. Though the higher part of Roanoke is annually frozen, and for
a shorter or longer period rendered unnavigable in winter, with lower Roanoke
commences the region on the Atlantic coast where navigation remains
open at all seasons. It is true that even Albemarle sound has been occasionally
impeded with ice, but this phenomenon is rare. As a navigable
channel following either branch, the importance of this basin is lessened by
the shallowness of Albemarle sound—an irremovable impediment. At
present, however, there is in progress a scheme for connecting, by
rail-road, the navigable tide water below Weldon with Chesapeake bay.
In its actual state the rivers are navigable for boats to Salem on the Roanoke,
and to Danbury in North Carolina by Dan river. This was effected
by side canals, sluices and other artificial improvements.

Sandy river, of Virginia and Kentucky, is composed of two branches,
called relatively East fork and West fork. East fork, the main constituent
of Sandy, rises in the Appalachian valleys, interlocking sources with those
of Great Kanawha to the east, and with those of Holston and Clinch branches
of Tennessee river to the S. E. Issuing from this elevated region, and
draining part of Tazewell and Logan counties, Virginia, the Sandy river
pursues a N. W. direction by comparative courses 50 miles, to its passage
through Cumberland mountain. Becoming a boundary between Virginia
and Kentucky below the Cumberland chain, Sandy assumes a direction of
N. N. W. 70 miles, separating Logan and Cabell counties, of Virginia,
from Floyd, Lawrence, and Greenup counties, of Kentucky, to its final influx
into Ohio river opposite Burlington, Ohio. West Sandy rises in Russell
and Tazewell counties, Virginia, and assuming a N. W. direction pierces
the Cumberland chain, enters Kentucky, and after traversing Pike and Floyd
counties, bends to the northward and joins East Sandy in Lawrence county.
The valley of Sandy river has that of Tennessee river S., Kentucky S. W.,
Licking W., that of Ohio N., Guyandotte E., and Great Kanawha S. E.
It is about 100 miles long, mean width 35, and area 3,500 square miles.

Shenandoah river, one of the great southern branches of Potomac river,
is composed of two branches, called with no great relative correctness,
North Branch and South Branch. The southern and main branch rises in
Augusta county, as far south as latitude 38°, and long. 2° west of Washington
City. Flowing thence northeastward along the northwestern slope
of Blue Ridge, over Augusta, Rockingham, and Page counties, receives
the North Branch in the southern angle of Federick county, after a comparative
course of 90 miles.

The North Branch of Shenandoah river has its source in Rockingham
county, from which it flows by comparative courses N. N. E. 50 miles over
Rockingham and Shenandoah counties, enters Frederick, bends to the eastward,
and joins the South Branch as already noticed. Below the junction
of its two branches, the Shenandoah flows N. E. along the N. W. slope of
Blue Ridge 40 miles to its junction with the Potomac at Harper's Ferry.

Tennessee river, of the state of the same name, and of the states of
Kentucky, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, and Virginia, is
the great southeastern constituent of the Ohio. The very peculiar features
of the valley of Tennessee, demand a general and particular notice. This
valley is naturally divided into two physical sections; the higher or mountainous,
and the lower or hilly. The most remote sources of Tennessee are

found in those of Clinch, in Tazewell, and of Holston in Wythe counties,
of Virginia, interlocking sources with those of Sandy and Great Kanawha.
From this elevated origin, the main constituents pursue a southwestern
course between the two parallel chains of the Appalachian system, Cumberland,
and the main spine, both stretching in a similar direction with the
rivers, at a mean distance of about 70 miles asunder. Besides this principal
valley, another of less width between the main chain and Blue Ridge,
is also drained by the constituents of Tennessee; but this more eastern and
more elevated valley slopes to the N. W., at right angles to the mountain
chains. The latter mountain valley comprises the North Carolina and
Georgia part of the valley of Tennessee. Including both minor vallies,
upper Tennessee drains an elongated ellipise of 350 miles longer axis;
shorter axis 120 miles from the Blue Ridge at the sources of French Broad,
to Cumberland mountain, where it separates the sources of Powell's river
from those of Cumberland: mean breadth 80 miles, and area 24,000 square
miles. Descending from the extreme fountains in Virginia, the valley
widens as the mountain chains recede from each other, and again contracts
as the same chains gradually re-approach each other at the northwestern
angle of Georgia, and northeastern of Alabama. At the latter point, well
known by the name of Nickajack, all the large tributaries have united, and the
Blue Ridge and Cumberland chains have inclined to within less than 40
miles of each other. Below Nickajack, the now large volume of Tennessee
continues S. W. 60 miles, without receiving a single creek of 20 miles
course, the two bounding mountain chains still inclining upon each other,
till their approaching bases force the river through the Cumberland chain.
To one whose eye first glanced on the volume of Tennessee, below its passage
through Cumberland mountain, without previous knowledge of the
valley above, no adequate idea would occur, that before it, flowed the accumulated
waters of a mountainous region of 24,000 square miles extent. In
fact, to an observer, thus placed, the main volume of Tennessee would appear
as one of the constitutents of a river valley below the Cumberland
chain. About 20 miles below the passage of Tennessee river through it,
the Cumberland mountain receives the Blue Ridge, if such a term can be
correctly applied to the merging of two mountain chains. Here, along the
northern sources of Mobile basin, the Appalachian system changes its distinctive
character, and the confused masses of hills follow each other westwardly
toward the Mississippi. The Tennessee river deflects rather more
than does the mountain system, and flows N. W. by W. by comparative
courses 120 miles, to the northwestern angle of Alabama, and the northeastern
of Mississippi, where this large stream again bends at nearly right angles,
and pursues a course of a very little west of north 150 miles, to its entrance
into the Ohio, after an entire comparative course of 680 miles.

The second great section of Tennessee, and the lower part of the first,
below Nickajack, are comprised in the fine northern valley of Alabama.
The main volume flowing along the base of a physical line extending from
the Ohio valley in the vicinity of Pittsburg, to the northern part of the basin
of Mobile. The very striking coincidence of the river inflections between
the extremes of this region, must appear to the most inattentive observer
of a good map of that part of the United States. This regularity of
structure is evinced by the great inflections of Ohio, Kanawha, Kentucky,
Green, Cumberland, and Tennessee rivers. The Tennessee itself literally
occupies the base of the physical region indicated, as in all its comparative

course below Nickajack, or its entrance into Alabama, of 330 miles, it does
not receive a single stream above the size of a large creek, nor does the outer
selvedge of its valley on the left, in Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, and
Kentucky, exceed a mean breadth of 20 miles. On the right, embosomed
between Tennessee and Cumberland rivers, and comprising central Tennessee,
and northern Alabama, spreads a physical region, extending from Cumberland
mountain to the lower reach of Tennessee river, 130 miles, with a
mean breadth of 80 miles, and an area of 10,400 square miles. This beautiful
tract is semi-circled by the main volume of Tennessee, and drained by
Elk river, Duck river, and innumerable creeks. Below Duck river, however,
Tennessee receives no stream from either side of any magnitude worthy
notice in a general view. Including all its sections, the lower valley
of Tennessee comprises an area of 17,600 square miles; and the whole valley
embraces a superficies of 41,600 square miles. This extent of Tennessee
valley, if compared with the whole valley of Ohio, spreads over nearly
one-fifth part, and gives to Tennessee the first rank among the tributaries
of Ohio. Amongst the peculiar features of the course of Tennessee, the
most remarkable is, that rising as far north as lat. 37° 10′, and curving
thence southward to lat. 34° 23′, it again recurves back to its original latitude,
and falls into the Ohio river almost exactly due west from its primitive
springs in Tazewell county; thus embosoming nearly the whole large
valley of Cumberland, and part of that of Green river. Geographically,
Tennessee valley lies between north lat. 34° 10′ and 37° 10′, and in long.
between 4° 15′ and 11° 40′ west of Washington. It is the first and largest,
advancing from the south, of those streams gushing from the elevated slopes
of the Appalachian ridges, and which flow westward into the great basin
of the Mississippi. In relative height, there is above 1,700 feet difference
between the highest and lowest extremes of Tennessee valley. The arable
surface of Tazewell and Wythe counties, from which the fountains of Kanawha
and Holston have their origin, must be at least 2,000 feet above the
Atlantic tides; whilst that of Ohio river, at the influx of Tennessee, but little
exceeds 300 feet. The difference is fully an equivalent for 4° of latitude,
and accounts for the rapid changes of climate experienced on lines of latitude
in Tennessee. The current of every branch of Tennessee is very rapid,
though direct falls are rare, and even dangerous shoals are not common.
Of the latter, those particularly called Muscle Shoals, between Lauderdale and
Lawrence counties, Alabama, are most remarkable and difficult to navigate.
The whole river, however, having a mean fall exceeding two feet to the
mile, is only favorable to down stream navigation, which it admits in most
of its branches to near their sources.

Tye river, a small river of Virginia, rising in the Blue Ridge, and flowing
southeastward into James river, after draining part of Nelson and Amherst
counties, and by one of its constituents, Piney river, forming for some few
miles the boundary between those counties.

York river of Virginia, formed by two main branches, Pamunky and
Mattapony. Below the union of its constituent streams, York river is rather
a bay, varying from two to three miles in width, extending to the S. E.
27 miles, and thence east 12 miles, into Chesapeake, between York and
Gloucester counties. Below the junction of Pamunky and Mattapony ririvers;
York bay does not receive a tributary above the size of a small
creek. It admits ships of any size to or near the Great Bend at Yorktown,
but above admits only coasting vessels. Including all its tributaries,

the valley of York river lies between those of James and Rappahannock.
The greatest length 120 miles from the mouth of York river to the extreme
source of North Anna river, in South West mountain; but, if taken
with this extent the mean width would not exceed 20 miles, and at the utmost
breadth, only about 45 miles. The area 2,600 square miles. Extending
in lat from 37° 15′ to 38° 16′, and in long from 0° 41′ E. to 1° 22′ W. of Washington.

Youghioghany river of Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia, having
its most remote sources in Preston county of the latter state, but deriving its
most numerous southern tributaries from the valley between the Back Bone
and Laurel mountains, Alleghany county, Maryland. From this elevated
tract the main stream flows nearly due north 35 miles, enters Pennsylvania
between Fayette and Somerset counties, within which it thence flows
about eight miles direct course to where it is joined by Castleman's river, an
equal or probably a superior stream, entering from the N. E. Some of the
southern fountains of Castleman's river, rise in Alleghany county, Maryland,
but the greater part of its tributaries flow from Somerset county,
Pennsylvania, and rise in the same valley with the confluents of Youghioghany.
Below the union of the two main branches the Youghioghany
assuming a northwestern course, continues in that direction 60 miles to its
junction with the Monongahela at MacKees port, in Alleghany county.
Where Youghioghany is traversed by the United States road at Smithfield,
the water level is 1,405 feet above that of the Atlantic. The extreme heads
of this stream have an elevation exceeding 2,500 feet, the mouth being elevated
about 700 feet, the entire fall must be 1,800 feet. The whole valley
of Youghioghany is either mountainous or very hilly and broken.

CLIMATE.

The following article was received too late for insertion in its proper
place, but we insert it here as affording some evidence of attention and observation
upon a subject of which our men of science have been too negligent;
and which requires the joint and persevering labor of many hands
to afford any thing like accurate detail or valuable information.

At the discovery of our continent it presented an immense forest untouched
by human labor. The majestic rivers of the new world, swelling by
every shower, inundated the whole country, and left in their track numerous
marshes and extensive lakes. The woods were hid with rank luxuriance,
while the exuberant undergrowth of herbs, shrubs, and weeds, gave
to the prospect that gloomy and repulsive solitude which was so aptly described
by the first settlers as the wilderness. The earth could not retain
the heat of the sun, nor could this effect be produced by the mass of foliage.
The air stagnated in the forest. Offensive exhalations arose from the numerous
marshes, and the accumulated decay of vegetation, while the whole
land was rife with the pestilence of malaria.

We cannot always arrive at definite conclusions of the climate of any
country by barely measuring its degrees of distance from the equator. Its
character is controlled by many other direct causes. Extent of territory—
nature of soil—height of mountains and elevation above the sea, greatly
affect it. The extent of our northern seas, with the ice which continues
there from year to year, gives to every wind which blows over them an
intense cold. A chain of gigantic mountains spread their snow-capped

summits throughout the heart of our continent. The winds which blow
over them become deeply surcharged with cold, whose piercing severity is
not diminished until it has extended far down upon our southern sea coast.
Our daily experience attests the truth of this fact.

The climate of Virginia has not been stationary. To trace its characteristics
is to follow the varying passions of the coquette—now enticing by
seductive smiles—and now chilling by capricious frowns. Yet it is the
clime under whose genial influence we have been bred, and we can easily
forget its vicissitudes in the glittering canopy of life and beauty which it
throws around every scene. Those who have dwelt amid the sunny clime
of Italy—the fierce heat of Spain, and the elastic air of France, can appreciate
from the test of comparison, the softness of a Virginian day—and how
splenetic soever we may be, it never has gloom enough to make us "damn
it as a lord."

Captain John Smith, in his faithful and spirited History of the Colony of
Virginia, makes many allusions to its climate, and with a proper allowance
for his zeal in coloring the advantages of a settlement in the colony, we
may receive his statements as the honest opinions of a careful and accurate
observer.

"The sommer (says he) is hot as in Spaine, the winter cold as in France
or England. The heate of sommer is in June, July, and August, but commonly
the cool breezes asswage the vehemency of the heate. The chief
of the winter is halfe December, January, February, and halfe March. The
cold is extreme sharpe, but here the proverbe is true `that no extreme long
continueth.' Sometimes there are great droughts, other times much raine,
yet greater necessitie of neither, by reason we see not but that all the raritie
of needful fruites in Europe may be there in great plentie by the industrie of
man." In an earnest appeal to the friends of the colony, he again recommends
it for the "mildness of the ayre and the fertilitie of the soyle."

This sketch of the colony is studiously silent as to the existence of marshes,
though much of the ill health of the first emigrants, may be traced to
them.[2] In giving an account of the bays, rivers, and brooks, our author
incidentally remarks that "by the rivers are many plain marshes containing
some twenty, some one hundred and some two hundred acres. But little
of grasse there is but what groweth in low marshes." In the advance of
population and agricultural improvement, these marshes were gradually reduced.
Mr. Nathaniel Caussey, who had lived in Virginia with Captain
Smith, states in the year 1627, "that whereas the country was heretofore
held most intemperate and contagious by many, now they have houses,
lodging, and victuals, and the sun hath power to exhale up the moist vapors
of the earth where they have cut down the woods, which before it could not,
being covered with spreading tops of high trees, they find it much more
healthful than before." Captain Butler, a gallant pioneer of the new world,
and at one time governor of Bermuda, on his return to England from Virginia
in the year 1624, presented to Charles I, a pamphlet entitled, "The
unmasked face of our colony in Virginia as it was in the winter 1622."
In this work he draws a lamentable picture of the struggles of the infant
colony, and asserts "that the English plantations are generally seated on
marshes, lakes, and infectious bogs, which have subjected the planters to the

inconveniences and diseases prevalent in the most unhealthy parts of England."
This pamphlet excited much hostility against the Virginian Company,
which was artfully fermented by Charles I. who was then secretly
planning the ruin of that noble and patriotic association. Some of the
members of the company who had been in Virginia united in an address to
the public, in which they state "that they had found the air of Virginia to
be as wholesome and the soil for the most part as fertile as in any part of
England." The House of Burgesses in a curious memorial of resentment,
ill humor, and personal sarcasm, pronounced the charges of Capt. Butler to
be false and slanderous, and informed the king "that no bogs have been
seen here, by any that have lived here twice as many years as Capt. Butler
did weeks in the country—the places which he so miscalls being the richest
parts of the earth, if we had a sufficient force to clear their woods and to give
the fresh springs which pass through them a free passage. The soil is generally
rich and restores our trust with abundance. The air is sweet and the
clime healthful, all circumstances considered, to men of sound bodies and
good government."

In 1624 the Virginian Company in petitioning parliament for encouragement
and protection, earnestly recommended the colony "for that temperature
of climate which agreed well with the English." Smith often
makes similar comparisons, and it is evident from the writings of our earliest
historians, that the climate of Virginia differed but little from that of
England. The immense mass of vegetation which overshadowed the country,
filled it with fogs and vapors, assimilating it to that of England, and
rendering it extremely cold in its winters, and tardy in its summers. It was
less affected by the standard temperature of the sea than England, and was
marked with more striking vicissitudes. The cold winter of 1607, which
was felt throughout all Europe[3] was, in the lauguage of Smith, found "as
extreame in Virginia." There were also many unseasonable years, and
others singularly propitious to the agriculture of the country. The year
1610 was long recollected by the epithet of the starving time, while in the
year 1619 two crops of rare-ripe corn were made. Among many of the
acts of the House of Burgesses regulating the trade of the country, we find
one which prohibits the exportation of Indian corn "on account of the unseasonableness
of the last two summers."

As the country was gradually cleared of its forests and undergrowth, the
climate became dry, temperate, and warm. The act of the House of Burgesses
of 1705, which directed the capitol to be built at Williamsburg, recites,
"that this place hath been found by constant experience to be healthy
and agreeable to the constitutions of this his majesty's colony and dominion,
having the natural advantages of a serene and temperate air, and dry
and champaign land." A correspondent to the Royal Philosophical Society,
who wrote an account of Virginia about this period, says "that the winters
are dry and clear—the spring is earlier than that of England. Snow
falls in great quantities, but seldom lies above a day or two, and the frosts,
though quick and sharpe, seldom last long. July and August are sultry
hot, while September is noted for prodigious showers of rain. The north
and N. W. winds are either very sharp and piercing, or boisterous and
stormy, and the S. E. and south hazy and sultry."

From the want of accurate observations, and those careful collections of
meteorological facts which elucidate the character of all climates, our speculations
on that of Virginia must be necessarily vague and indefinite, and
for the nicer shades of its changes, we are forced to substitute the broader
features of its outline. Our climate is uniform only in its sudden vicissitudes.
Its consistency is impaired by many causes, which have produced
a difference of temperature dependant on the deeply marked geographical
distinctions of our sea board, tide water, valley, and mountainous regions.
My observations have been principally confined to that intermediate country,
between the Chesapeake and the South West Mountains, on the low and
moist lands of the Matapony, in latitude north 38° 6′, and about seventy
miles south of Washington City. While I am forced in my examination
of the temperature of other parts of the state, to rely on statements often inaccurate
in their conception and irrelevant in their details.

The standard temperature of every country is regulated by that of the level
of the ocean. According to the researches of Professor Leslie, the
mean temperature at the level of the sea, in our latitude, is between 67°
and 71°, which gradually diminishes from that level, until it reaches the
point of perpetual congelation. Pure air is not heated by the sun's rays
which pass through it. The solar rays must be stopped by the earth, collected
and reflected before any heat can be given to the atmosphere. In taking
a standard, we assume the sea, which affords a fairer criterion of uniform
temperature, than the mean heat of springs and wells. Neither does
the sea retain the extreme of heat or cold which we find in the earth. A
cold wind blowing over this volume of salt water, necessarily cools its surface,
which from its increase of specific gravity, sinks and gives place to
an inferior warmer wave. The action of the wind in rippling the surface
of the water, and the influence of tide and currents conspire in bringing
the warmer water to the level of the sea to mitigate the coldness of the
wind: this action continues till the whole water is so far cooled that it becomes
susceptible of frost. When frozen it is no longer warmed from the
inferior water, but blows on with increased rigor. A warm wind takes a
portion of cold as it passes over the surface of the sea, and becomes reduced
to the mean temperature of that body. The sea breeze so prevalent in Eastern
Virginia is cool, as much from the standard heat of the ocean, as from
its rapidity of motion. It is cooler in Virginia than in the West Indies,
and often since the opening of the country, spreads its elastic freshness to
the foot of the South West Mountains. There is a sensible and striking
difference between the temperature of Eastern and Western Virginia. The
former from its vicinity to the sea coast, becomes tempered into more gentleness;
while its earlier vegetation shows the greater power of its soil to
retain heat. In the latter the winters are longer and more severe, yet the
farmer may there admire the wisdom of that providence, which in increasing
the rigor of the frost, mellows and crumbles the land for the purposes
of agriculture, while the light soils of the east require no such agency.

In the course of five years, from 1772 to 1777, Mr. Jefferson made many
observations on the temperature at Williamsburg, and having reduced them
to an average for each month in the year, he has given us the results of the
greatest daily heat of the several seasons.[4] I have before me a series of
careful observations compiled by that accurate thinker, and accomplished

scholar, the late David Watson, (of Louisa county,) in a similar period of
five years, from 1823 to 1828. His residence was near the South West
mountains, and in a country comparatively thickly covered with wood. The
result of his observations and those of Mr. Jefferson, making a distance in
time of 52 years, and of southern latitude in favor of Williamsburg, is here
submitted:

MR. JEFFERSON'S.

                       

January,	38½°	to	44°
February,	41	to	47½
March,	48	to	54½
April,	56	to	62½
May,	63	to	70½
June,	71½	to	78¼
July,	77	to	82½
August,	76¼	to	81
September,	69½	to	74¼
October,	61¼	to	66½
November,	47¾	to	53½
December,	43	to	48¾

MR. WATSON'S.

                       

January,	36	to	44
February,	35	to	40
March,	44	to	49
April,	56	to	60
May,	61	to	69
June,	71	to	79
July,	80	to	84
August,	81	to	84
September,	74	to	77
October,	59	to	63
November,	46	to	54
December,	40	to	44

The coolest and warmest parts of the day were separately added, and an
average of the greatest cold and heat of that day was formed. From the
averages of every day in the month, a general average for the whole month
was deduced. In following this mode of analysis, there are many slight
features of discrepancy between the statements of Mr. Jefferson and Mr.
Watson, which considerably impair the correctness of the comparison. Mr.
Watson's thermometer was suspended in a passage, far removed from the
action of fire, in a house constructed of wood, and the calculation of his
table is based on observations made between the hours of 10 A. M. and 3
P. M. Mr. Jefferson is silent as to the situation of his thermometer, while
it appears that he has reckoned from the hours of 8 A. M. to 4 P. M.

The hottest period of these five years, observed by Mr. Watson, was in
July, 1825, when the thermometer on several days rose above 90°, and the
hottest month was in August, 1828. The coldest period was during the
month of January, 1827, and the warmest winter was in 1828-29.

My own observations made during a period of four years, from 1829 to
1834, cannot be calculated for an average temperature. Many days and
even months from my absence from home, were necessarily unnoticed.
Those periods which are recorded differ but little in their particular and
daily results, from those of Mr. Watson; while I have noticed his singular
omission—the prevalence of the winds, and the "fantastic tricks" with which
our climate so playfully disports. From my observations, I am induced to
place the mean temperature of our climate at 55°; thus varying according
to natural and artificial causes several degrees from the standard temperature
of the sea.

The year 1831 was characterised by many vicissitudes of heat and cold.
On the 27th February the mercury sunk to 7°, while in July and August
it frequently rose to 86° and 94°. The ensuing winters of 1831 and 1832
were uncommonly rigorous, snow fell in great quantities, and in many places
continued on the ground till the 4th of March. Early frost did much injury
to vegetation, while the cold was but slightly removed from the earth

until late in the ensuing summer. The spring of 1834 was attended by
severe frosts, which resembled in their destructive character, those which
had rendered the year 1816 proverbial. They committed great devastations
in April, and on the 15th, 16th, and 17th of May, the Indian corn on our
low lands, and the leaves of the garden and forest trees were scathed and
blighted to a degree precluding, in many cases, all hope of restoration.

In Virginia the transitions from heat to cold are sudden, and sometimes
to very extreme degrees; often in the day time the mercury will stand at
94° or 81°, and will fall in the course of a few hours to 60° and 50°. Mr.
Jefferson informs us that the mercury has been known to descend from 92°
to 47° in thirteen hours. I have frequently noted vicissitudes of a similar
kind, and when the change is accompanied by a S. E. wind and rain, the
air becomes cold, raw and disagreeable. We have few summers in which
a fire is not often required. On the 1st of May, 1827, there was a light
fall of snow at Gloucester Court House,[5] while it is not uncommon to see
slight frosts in August. In our winter the cold weather, though severe, is
short, and the frequent snows of the night are generally removed before the
sunset of the ensuing day. Water in ponds is slowly congealed, and rarely
makes ice thick enough for preservation, until it has been chilled by a
fall of snow—again, its production is very rapid; rivers half of a mile in
breadth, will be frozen over in the course of one night, sufficiently firm to
bear men and horses.[6] In the month of January, 1827, many of those
short yet wide salt streams, which wash the shores of Gloucester county,
were frozen to the extent of thirty or forty feet from the land. This rigorous
cold is rarely of much duration. Sustained, and principally created
by north and northeastern winds, it quickly yields to the shifting of the
wind to any other point. Some of our winters are so temperate and mild,
that the cattle can find a support in the woods. Vegetation has been observed
in all the winter months, and in the latter part of December diminutive
pears, peaches and apples, fully ripened, have been gathered from the
trees. A rose, exposed in an open garden, bloomed throughout the whole
winter of '28 and '29. In this winter the peach tree bloomed in the latter
part of January, and produced in its regular season a plentiful crop of fruit.
Many of our coldest days are succeeded by gentle and moderate evenings;
our severest cold is about the latter part of January, generally commencing
after a hard rain, and continuing on an average about six days, thus realising
the truth of that old Virginian proverb, "that as the day lengthens the
cold strengthens; a rapid thaw, often accompanied with rain and east winds,
then takes place, while warm days and moderate nights soon reduce its severity,
and open the way for the premature approach of spring. "Halfe
of March" is no longer winter. Spring has already scattered her vivid
mantle o'er the scene, while the whole air is redolent of life and fragrance.
Yet even its brightness is momentary—an unexpected frost often shows that
the frown of winter still lingers on the land, and we too frequently find a
practical illustration of Shakspeare's metaphor,

It is now stormy, variable and cold; now calm, gentle and warm, and now
dry, peaceful, and serene. Until the middle of May our climate presents
one incessant tumult of rain and drought, frost and heat; yet a spring uniformly
cold is far more favorable to our agriculture, than its usual uncertain
temperature for suppressing vegetation, it protects it from the blighting frosts
of March and April. Often during the spring months the weather is excessively
damp, cloudy and hazy. In March, 1833, the sun was obscured
for more than thirteen days, while every thing was chilled into gloomy melancholy.

The vegetation of this season affords us a criterion of the heat of the
spring, which may be received in aid of the more accurate results derived
from the thermometer. In the course of four years I have found these average
periods of time suststained by careful observations.

Peach blooms from March 7 to March 14.

Apple blooms from March 20 to March 29.

Cherry blooms from March 13 to March 17.

Plum blooms from March 26 to March 31.

Strawberry blooms from March 24 to March 31.[7]

About the latter part of May our summer has commenced: the air becomes
dry, warm and elastic, and the verdure of the forest assumes a more
deepened hue of vivid green. The superabundant moisture of the earth
acquired during the winter, is now thoroughly evaporated, and the temperature
of the season in dispelling lassitude, invigorates into activity. Summer
burns on with a bright and glowing splendor, alternately relieved by
gentle showers and refreshing breezes. Occasional droughts of many weeks
in duration, parch the luxuriance of the vegetation—they are succeeded by
copious and heavy showers of rain, which quickly restore the withered
prospect. The approach of autumn is marked by heavy fogs in the morning
and evening, which are soon dispelled, leaving that calm and serene
temperature, which gives to this season all the beauty of tranquil repose. In
every season there is a large and constant exhalation from the earth in the
shape of vapor, its volume being proportioned to the heat of the day. We
do not often observe this exhalation when the heat of the atmosphere differs
in a small degree from that of the earth; when the temperature of the air
is considerably lower, this vapor so soon as it has arisen is deprived of a
part of its heat, while its watery particles are more closely attracted into
union and become visible in the shape of fog. In the autumn of Virginia,
the heat of the day is sufficient to produce a large ascent of vapor. Undisturbed
by currents of wind it easily condenses, and is thickened by calm and
chilling nights into a heavy mist, which in the guise of a cloud finds its
resting place on the earth. Autumn of all other seasons, is least liable to
sudden and extreme vicissitudes. The approach of winter is alike gradual
and uniform, and though we have frequent light snows, the mildness of autumn
is rarely wasted away until late in December.

In reasoning from the researches of philosophy, we are taught to place
but little reliance on the uncertain narratives of tradition; they, however,
with a slow yet steady advance, acquire respect, and often mould theory into
fact, and fashion opinion into fixed principles. The common belief that our

climate has been changed into a milder temperature, has taken most of its
certainty from the statements of our old people, who are uniformly consistent
in this particular. The bloom of the orchard trees formerly restrained
by a protracted winter from premature expansion, rarely failed arriving at
the maturity of fruit; the earth remained covered with snow for many
weeks, and the winter did not, as now, dally with the wantonness of spring.
The marshes, uncleared lands, ponds and lakes, which conspired to absorb
the heat of the earth,[8] have been almost obliterated or greatly reduced.
There is a lesser quantity of snow, and more of rain, while the frequency
of violent storms of wind in the spring and summer, distinctly prove the
great mass of our local heat, and accumulated electricity.

The winds of Virginia are singularly fickle and capricious, possessing
neither the uniformity or regularity of those which blow at the tropics. Our
prevailing wind is the south west, which assumes, alternately, gentle and
severe characteristics. The frequency of southwestern winds above the
latitudes of the trades, flows as a necessary consequence, from the continuance
and direction of the vast currents of air. It moves unconfined and
unresisted over the sea, until it reaches that unbroken range of mountains,
which towers from one extremity of our continent to the other. It strikes
against them, and from its elasticity rebounds with great velocity, in a direction
opposed to the forcing powers of the trades, taking in its oblique movement
all those features which mark our southwestern wind.

During the spring the N. E. is the most common wind. The huge masses
of snow and ice at the north pole, are gradually melted by the heat of
the sun; great quantities of vapor during this time are exhaled and remain
suspended, augmenting both the weight and bulk of the atmosphere. That
wonderful and mysterious agent, electricity, in dispelling the vapor and
converting it into elastic air,[9] gives an impetus to that wind which issuing
from the poles, takes a northeastern direction as it advances southerly, (its
diurnal motion being less than that of the earth,) and falls surcharged with
snow and rain on every portion of our country.

Mr. Jefferson made 3698 observations on the various points from which
our winds blew, noting their changes two or three times in each day. The
prevalence of the S. W. winds, over those from other quarters is thus numerically
stated by him:

               

South West,	926.
North,	611.
North East,	548.
East,	521.
North,	409.
West,	351.
South East,	223.
South,	109.

He has also made a comparative view of the difference between the winds
at Monticello and Williamsburg. He has reduced nine months' observations
at Monticello, to four principal points, being perpendicular to, or parallel
with, our coasts, mountains, and rivers, viz: the N. E., S. E., S. W.,
and N. W. He has also reduced an equal number of observations, 421,
from his table above, taking them proportionally from every point.

My own observations made many times in each day, amount to 749, without
reducing them in the proportionate manner of Mr. Jefferson. I have
submitted them under the points and heads which he has adopted:

       

	N. E.	S. E.	S. W.	N. W.	Total.
Williamsburg,	127	61	132	101	421
Monticello,	32	91	126	172	421
Braynefield,	204	130	247	168	749

In an average of two years, I have found our winds thus yearly prevailing,
the dominant wind of each day being only reckoned, and not the usual
vicissitudes of local breezes, or squalls.

               

	Days.		Days.
South West,	122	North,	26
North West,	89	South,	21
North East,	61	West,	12
East,	30	South East,	4
	302		63
			302
			days 365

A curious phenomenon is sometimes witnessed during a severe wind from
the S. W.; a thin vapor or scud is seen moving with great velocity below
the clouds, from the N. E., there being two currents of air of directly
contrary courses in active motion at the same time.

In the early part of the spring and autumn, in dry seasons, about sunset
it is common to meet with currents of warm air, small in their extent yet extremely
rapid in their movements; they are considerably above the heat of
the human body, and are wayward and eccentric, both in their duration and
extent. Their existence has given rise to much speculation, and even the
experienced philosophy of Mr. Jefferson has succumbed to the mystery[10] of
their origin.

Our frosts are sometimes equally severe and unexpected. No body placed
near the earth has a temperature of its own, but is entirely regulated by
that of the earth. A violent storm of rain, by absorbing much of the heat
of the earth, is often followed by a destructive frost. When the power of
frost reaches a certain pitch, the vapors dispersed throughout the air, yield
their latent heat—the atmosphere becomes clouded, the frost is either destroyed
or mitigated, and the vapors descend in rain or snow.

Our hardest frosts never penetrate the earth more than three inches, and
though the leaves of the trees and shrubs are scathed or destroyed, and timber
sometimes splits in the direction of the fibres of the tree, its roots uniformly
remain uninjured. Those portions of vegetation which grow nearest
to the earth, and those in low and marshy situations, receive the severest
injuries. On the night of the 17th May, 1834, the leaves of the oak, hickory,

and all the forest trees, were blighted in most of their foliage; the sycamore
only remained unhurt. Frost during the winter, is a fatal enemy to
those plants which are nurtured in southern exposures; they are sometimes
covered with snow, which melting rapidly, is converted in the course
of the night into destructive ice. Our white frost is generally harmless, it
being simple dew slightly congealed.

Dew is found in Virginia in heavy masses, generally in the months of
August, September, and October; it lies in greater quantities on our flat
than high lands, being collected there during the absence of the sun from
the horizon, like the relics of a drizzling rain. It appears first on the lower
parts of bodies, because in the evening the lower atmosphere is first cooled
and most disposed to part with its vapor.

Virginia is subject to rains of vehement and long continuance; they fall
in the largest quantity about the breaking of the winter, and in March and
September. I have no data on which to reckon their depth[11] or their prevalence
over the fair and cloudy days of our climate. Our valley and western
regions, by the condensing power of their mountains, and our tide water
sections, by the attractive force of broad rivers, have more local rains
than the intermediate country, and do not suffer in the same proportion from
continued droughts. If a year be remarkable for rain, it is fair to conclude
that the ensuing winter will be severe, from the great evaporation of the
heat of the earth, and if the rains have been violent, sterility and barrenness
will follow in the next year in proportion, as the surface mould, so vital
to vegetation, has been scattered and wasted away.

Our Indian summer presents an ample field for the creations of fancy and
the conceits of theory. It generally follows excessive and protracted droughts,
and is dispersed by heavy rains. It has been traced to electric influence—
to the burning of mountains—to the existence of numerous impalpable atoms
of decayed vegetation, and has been assimilated to those light gray clouds
which overhang Peru. Adhuc lis est subjudice.

POLITICAL AND MORAL CONDITION.

Having given a summary account of the natural condition of Virginia,
reserving a more detailed account for the particular counties; we now proceed
to give a similar succinct description of the situation of her people, begining
with their number and classes.

POPULATION.

The number of people in Virginia has been as follows, at the several periods
mentioned, viz: in 1790,—747,610—in 1800,—880,200—in 1810,—
974,622—in 1820,—1,065,366—and in 1830,—1,211,375.—At the last period
the population was divided as follows, among the several counties, viz:

EASTERN DISTRICT.

                                                                                                                                   

Counties.	Population
Accomac,	16,656
Albemarle,	22,618
Amelia,	11,036
Amherst,	12,071
Bedford,	20,246
Brunswick,	15,767
Culpeper,	24,027
Cumberland,	11,690
Dinwiddie,	21,901
Elizabeth City,	5,053
Essex,	10,521
Fairfax,	9,204
Fauquier,	26,086
Fluvanna,	8,221
Franklin,	14,911
Gloucester,	10,608
Goochland,	10,369
Greensville,	7,117
Halifax,	28,034
Hanover,	16,253
Henrico,	28,797
Henry,	7,100
Isle of Wight,	10,517
James City,	3,838
King and Queen,	11,644
King George,	6,397
King William,	9,812
Lancaster,	4,801
Loudon,	21,939
Louisa,	16,151
Lunenburg,	11,957
Madison,	9,236
Mathews,	7,664
Buckingham,	18,351
Campbell,	20,350
Caroline,	17,760
Charles City,	5,500
Charlotte,	15,252
Chesterfield,	18,637
Meclenburg,	20,477
Middlesex,	4,122
Nansemond,	11,784
Nelson,	11,254
New Kent,	6,458
Norfolk,	24,806
Northampton,	8,641
Northumberland,	7,953
Nottoway,	10,130
Orange,	14,637
Patrick,	7,395
Pittsylvania,	26,034
Powhatan,	8,517
Prince Edward,	14,107
Prince George,	8,367
Prince William,	9,330
Prince Anne,	9,102
Richmond,	6,055
Southampton,	16,074
Spottsylvania,	15,134
Stafford,	9,362
Surry,	7,109
Sussex,	12,720
Warwick,	1,570
Westmoreland,	8,396
York,	5,354

WESTERN DISTRICT.

                                                                                   

Counties.	Population.
Alleghany,	2,816
Augusta,	19,926
Bath,	4,002
Berkeley,	10,518
Botetourt,	16,354
Brooke,	7,041
Cabell,	5,884
Frederick,	25,046
Giles,	5,274
Grayson,	7,675
Greenbrier,	9,006
Harrison,	14,722
Hampshire,	11,279
Hardy,	6,798
Jefferson,	12,927
Kanawha,	9,326
Lee,	6,461
Lewis,	6,241
Logan,	3,680
Monongalia,	14,056
Mason,	6,534
Monroe,	7,798
Montgomery,	12,306
Morgan,	2,694
Nicholas,	3,346
Ohio,	15,584
Page, (formerly E Shenandoah)	8,327
Pendleton,	6,271
Pocahontas,	2,542
Preston,	5,144
Randolph,	5,000
Rockbridge,	14,244
Rockingham,	20,683
Russell,	6,714
Scott,	5,724
Shenandoah,	11,423
Tazewell,	5,749
Tyler,	4,104
Washington,	15,614
Wood,	6,429
Wythe,	12,163

Total population of Eastern Virginia, 832,980; Western Va. 378,425.
Of the preceding were white persons,

                             

	Males.	Females.
Under 5 years of age,	65,793	62,411
From 5 to 10	51,805	49,964
From 10 to 15	43,287	41,936
From 15 to 20	36,947	40,479
From 20 to 30	60,911	62,044
From 30 to 40	36,539	36,456
From 40 to 50	23,381	23,750
From 50 to 60	15,261	15,447
From 60 to 70	8,971	8,765
From 70 to 80	3,674	3,857
From 80 to 90	1,108	1,098
From 90 to 100	184	158
From 100 and upwards	26	98
Total,	347,887	346,383

Of the colored population, were

                 

		Free.	Slaves.
	Male.	Female.	Male.	Female.
Under 10 years of age,	8,236	8,002	84,000	83,270
From 10 to 24,	6,126	7,031	68,917	66,921
From 24 to 36,	3,546	4,501	43,189	40,927
From 36 to 55,	2,721	3,379	30,683	27,206
From 55 to 100,	1,731	2,024	12,155	12,275
From 100 and upwards	27	24	133	144
Total,	22,387	24,961	239,077	230,680

RECAPITULATION.

               

Whites.	Free Colored.	Slaves.	Total.
694,270	47,343	469,757	1,211,375
Increase of population:
In 1800 the white males numbered,		514,280
Free colored,		20,124
Slaves,		345,796	880,200
Increase in thirty years,			331,175
Or thirty-seven and a half per cent.

In the same period, the free whites increased 180,020, or 35 per cent;
the free colored persons 27,224, or 135 per cent; and the slaves, 123,961,
or 36 per cent. For the ten years preceding the census of 1830, the rate
of increase of the whole population diminished considerably, and the relative
increase of the several classes varied from the foregoing results. On
the whole population, the rate was reduced from 37½ to 13½ per cent.; on

the free white, from 35 to 15 per cent; on the free colored, from 135 to 28¼
per cent.; and on the slaves from 36 to 10½ per cent. It is to be observed,
however, that, while the black population of the whole state has been diminishing,
when compared with the white, the reverse is true in respect to Eastern
Virginia, which is peculiarly the slave region; for, while, in 1790,
there was in that district a majority of 25,000 whites, the slave and free
colored population outnumbered them at every successive census, until, in
1830, the excess was upwards of 81,000. The facts thus exhibited show
that Western Virginia, which contains comparatively few slaves, has rapidly
increased its white population in the last ten years, the rate of increase
amounting to 25 per cent,; while, on the eastern side of the mountains, the
increase of the whites, in the same period, did not exceed 7½ per cent. The
greater multiplication of blacks in Eastern Virginia, notwithstanding constant
deportation to the southern and southwestern states, may be partly ascribed
to the mild treatment which they generally receive from their owners.
On the other hand, the evil effects of slavery, and the policy of adopting
some scheme for gradual abolition, are topics which have been freely
and earnestly discussed, and have already arrayed the Virginians into two
powerful parties. The slow progress of the white population, compared
with some of the other states, when so many propitious causes exist for its
advancement, has been urged as a prominent objection to slavery. Indeed,
the march of its aggregate population has fallen far short of the predictions
of former times. Mr. Jefferson, in his Notes, which were written in 1782,
estimated that the then existing stock, unaided by foreign emigration, would
be multiplied to 2,270,000 by the year 1835, exceeding, by upwards of a
million, the result of the last census. That the increase of numbers has
been restrained by powerful checks seems reasonable; but to point out their
true character and operation, belongs rather to the department of moral and
political philosophy.

This state is now divided into one hundred and eleven counties; whereof
sixty-six are on the eastern side, and forty-five on the western side of the
Blue Ridge mountains. Six new counties having been added since the taking
of the last census, and revision of the constitution; they were erected
by act of Assembly 1831-2, viz:—Page county, formed out of parts of
Shenandoah and Rockingham—Rappahannock, formed out of a part of
Culpeper county—Smyth, formed out of Washington and Wythe—Floyd,
from a part of Montgomery—Jackson, out of part of Mason, Kanawha and
Wood—and Fayette, formed out of parts of Greenbrier, Nicholas, and Kanawha
counties.

GOVERNMENT AND LAWS

Constitution.—The first constitution of this state was formed and adopted
in 1776, and continued in operation until October, 1829, when a convention
met at Richmond to alter and amend it, or frame a new one: on the
14th of January, 1830, the present constitution was adopted by a vote of 55
to 40. The amended constitution on being submitted to the legal voters of
the state was ratified by a majority of 10,492 votes, as appears by the following
statement.

           

	For.	Against.
Transalleghany District,	2,123	11,289
Valley District,	3,842	2,097
Middle District,	12,417	1,086
Tide-Water District,	7,673	1,091
Total,	26,055	15,563

Legislature.—The first election of members of the House of Delegates,
and Senate, under the amended constitution, took place on the several court
days in the month of October, 1830, in the different counties and boroughs
entitled to representation: and the first General Assembly convened at
Richmond on the first Monday in December, 1831.

By this constitution the legislative power is vested in a Senate and a
House of Delegates, which are together styled the General Assembly of
Virginia. The House of Delegates consists of 134 members chosen annually;—31
from the Trans-Alleghany district;—25 from the Valley district;—42
from the Middle district;—and 36 from the Tidewater district.
The Senate consists of 32 members;—13 from the counties west of the
Blue Ridge;—and 19 from the country east of that mountain. The Senators
are elected for four years, and the seats of one-fourth are vacated each
year.—In all elections to any office or place of trust, honor, or emolument;
the votes are given viva voce.—A reapportionment in both houses, is to take
place every ten years, commencing in 1841; until which time there is to be
no change in the number of delegates and senators from the several divisions;
and after 1841 the number of delegates is never to exceed 150, or
that of senators 36.

Executive.—The executive power is vested in a Governor elected by
the joint vote of the two houses of the General Assembly. He holds it
three years, commencing the 31st of March after his election, or on such
other day as may be from time to time prescribed by law; and he is ineligible
for the three years next after the expiration of his term of office. There
is a Council of State, consisting of three members, elected for three years by
the joint vote of the two houses; the seat of one being vacated annually.
The senior counsellor is Lieutenant Governor.

The present executive officers are

• L. W. Tazewell, Governor,

• Daniel A. Wilson, Lieut. Governor, Council.

• Wyndham Robertson, Council.

• Peter V. Daniel, Council.

• Lawson Burfoot, Treasurer of State,

• James E. Heath, Auditor,

• James Brown, Jr., Second Auditor,

• William Selden, Register of the Land Office.

Judiciary.—The Judges of the Supreme Court of Appeals, and of the
Circuit Superior Courts of Law and Chancery, are elected by joint vote of
both houses of the General Assembly, and hold their offices during good
behavior, or until removed by a concurrent vote of both houses; but two-thirds
of the members present must concur in such vote, and the cause of
removal be entered on the journals of each house.

The present Court of Appeals consists of

           

	Salary.
Henry St. George Tucker, President,	2,720
Francis T. Brooke, Judge,	2,500
William H. Cabell, Judge,	2,500
Wm. Brockenbrough, Judge,	2,500
Dabney Carr, Judge,	2,500

The Judges are entitled to receive, in addition to their salaries, 25 cents
a mile for necessary travel. The Court of Appeals holds two sessions annually;
one at Lewisburg, Greenbrier county, for the counties lying west of
the Blue Ridge, commencing on the 1st Monday in July, and continuing
90 days, unless the business shall be sooner despatched; the
other at Richmond, for the counties lying east of the Blue Ridge, commencing
at such times as the court may, from time to time, appoint, and continuing
160 days, unless the business shall be sooner despatched.

General Court.—The state is divided into 10 districts, and each district
into two circuits, and a Circuit Superior Court of Law and Chancery is held
twice every year in each county and corporation; the courts sitting until the
business is despatched.

There are 20 Judges, having each a salary of $1,500, and their names,
with the number of their respective circuits, are as follows:

• 1. Richard F. Baker,

• 2. John F. May,

• 3. Abel P. Upshur,

• 4. William Brown,

• 5. J. T. Lomax,

• 6. John Scott,

• 7. John B. Clopton,

• 8. William Daniel,

• 9. William Leigh,

• 10. Fleming Saunders,

• 11. Richard H. Field,

• 12. Lucas P. Thompson,

• 13. Richard E. Parker,

• 14. Daniel Smith,

• 15. Benjamin Estill,

• 16. James E. Brown,

• 17. Allen Taylor,

• 18. Edward D. Duncan,

• 19. Lewis Summers,

• 20. Joseph L. Fry.

County Courts.—Justices of the Peace who constitute these Courts are
elected by the Governor, upon nomination of the existing County Courts.
Four Justices constitute a Court for the trial of civil, and five for criminal
causes. Their civil jurisdiction in law and equity is concurrent with
that of the Circuit Superior Courts of Law and Chancery in cases of trover
or detinue, and others involving greater value than $50; and below that
amount but over $20, it is exclusive. Their criminal jurisdiction is concurrent
with that of the same Court in petit larceny, and all other offences
of free persons not exceeding the grade of misdemeanors, and in the case
of slaves exclusive as to all offences. The Justices receive no compensation;
but the lucrative office of Sheriff is conferred upon one of their body,
generally the eldest Justice, and for two successive years, when he gives
way to the next oldest in commission, &c. These Courts are established by
the Constitution, but their jurisdiction, is settled by law.

Right of Suffrage is extended to every white male citizen of the
commonwealth, resident therein, aged 21 years and upwards; who was
qualified to exercise the right under the former constitution and laws,—or
who own a freehold of the value of $25;—or who has a joint interest worth
$25, in a freehold,—or who has a reversion, or vested remainder in fee
expectant on an estate for life or years; of which he shall have been possessed
for six-months, unless obtained by descent, devise, or marriage;—or
who shall own and be in occupation of a leasehold estate, recorded two

months before he offers to vote, of an annual value of $20, and original duration
of at least 5 years;—or who has been housekeeper or head of a
family for 12 months, and been assessed with, and has paid taxes.

But paupers, persons of unsound mind, non-commissioned officers, soldiers,
seamen and marines of the U. States, and persons convicted of infamous
offences cannot vote.

As connected with this subject we insert here the Civil List of Virginia;—prepared
in compliance with a resolution of the House of Delegates
of the 8th of March, 1833.

CIVIL LIST,

Shewing the nature and extent of the duties of each officer of the Government
and their Salaries.

Governor, salary $3333 33.—The governor is ex-officio president of the
literary fund, the board of public works, the James river company, and the
northwestern turnpike company, for which several services he receives no
additional compensation.

Lieutenant Governor, $1000; two Councillors, $1000 each.—The lieutenant-governor
is not now a director of either of these boards. In case of
the death or resignation of the governor, he is entitled to the chief magistrate's
salary in lieu of his own. Neither the lieutenant-governor, nor the
other members of the council, have any perquisites of office.

Secretary of the Commonwealth, $1620 00; Assistant Clerk, $1000 00;
Copying Clerk, $200 00.—The secretary or clerk of the executive department
is also keeper of the seals and librarian, by virtue of his office. He
is entitled to a fee of $1 67 upon each testimonial granted from the executive
department, and to commissions, at the discretion of the joint library
committee, upon sales or exchanges of books belonging to the library fund.
These perquisites, it is understood, are very inconsiderable. Neither the
assistant nor copying clerk is entitled to any other compensation besides his
salary.

Clerk of the Council, $500 00:—Keeps the journal of the council, and
performs various other duties, for which he has no perquisites.

Door-Keeper to the Council, $500 00.—The door-keeper to the council
is also keeper of the capitol keys, but is entitled to no compensation besides
his regular salary. The incidental expenses of the executive department
during the past fiscal year, amounted to $1,193 61, including fuel,
stationery and postage.

President of the Court of Appeals, $2750 00; Four Judges of the
Court of Appeals, $2,500 each.—The president and judges are entitled, exclusive
of their salaries, to twenty cents per mile for travelling to and from
the respective courts they are required to attend.

Clerk Eastern Court, $1000 00; Clerk Western Court, $1000 00.—
This allowance of $1,000 to each of the clerks of the court of appeals, is
the maximum fixed by law, but the judges may in their discretion reduce
it. The clerks are entitled to their regular fees from individuals, but to no
other compensation from the state. The judges are authorized to appoint
a crier and tipstaff to each of the courts held at Richmond and Lewisburg,
and to fix their compensation. The crier at Richmond received, during the
last fiscal year, $729, and the tipstaff, $608 31; and the incidental expenses

for fuel, stationery, &c amounted, in the same period, to $193. The contingent
expenses at Lewisburg, owing to the short terms of the court, are
very inconsiderable.

Twenty Judges of the Circuit Superior Courts of Law and Chancery,
nineteen at $1,500, and one at $1,800.—The judge of the superior court
of Henrico receives $1,800 annual salary. The other judges, $1,500 each;
and all are entitled to 15 cents per mile for travelling through their circuits
and to the general court.

Clerk of the General Court, $500 00.—The fees of the clerk of the
general court are very inconsiderable.

Attorney Superior Court Henrico, $300 00; Clerk Superior Court Henrico,
$100 00.—An act concerning the superior court of Henrico, passed
29th March, 1823, fixes the compensation of the attorney and clerk of that
court, and makes them, in effect, salaried officers. The clerk is moreover
entitled to his fees for services rendered the commonwealth, which will probably
average about $40 per annum.

Attorney General, $1000 00.—The attorney general is entitled to fees
when recovered from defendants; but owing to the diminished number of
judgments against public debtors, his fees have not averaged more than $40
per annum for the last two years.

Treasurer, $2000 00.—The treasurer is ex-officio a director of the board
of public works, the James river company, the literary fund, and the northwestern
turnpike company. He is moreover, by virtue of his office, a director
of the Virginia bank, and treasurer of the Cincinnati fund, which is
in his possession. He has no perquisites of office.

First Clerk, $900 00.—The first clerk of the treasurer has charge of the
books in which the accounts of the commonwealth are kept, distinguished
from those which relate to speciffic funds, the latter being confided to the
second clerk. Both, however, perform indiscriminately the current duties
of the office. The incidental expenses of the treasury office during the last
fiscal year, embracing fuel, stationery, sweeper, &c amounted to $152 38.

Auditor of Public Accounts, $2000 00.—The auditor is ex-officio a director
of the James river company, the board of public works, the literary
fund, and the northwestern turnpike company. He is also, in conjunction
with the governor, lieutenant-governor, and second auditor, one of the commissioners
for transporting the free people of color. He has no perquisites
nor extra compensation, except a fee of 50 cents for each redemption of delinquent
land. The late laws on that subject have reduced these fees to an
average of thirty or forty dollars per annum. His general duties are to
audit all claims against the commonwealth, and to collect and disburse the
public revenue.

Clerk of Accounts, $1400 00.—The clerk of accounts has in his peculiar
charge the public books of account, prepares all the revenue statements
and the lists of balances, and performs a variety of duties connected with
his department.

First Clerk, $900 00.—The first clerk represents the auditor in his absence,
and during such time, is entitled to extra compensation at the rate of
$166 67 per annum. He has special charge of the vouchers upon which
warrants are issued, assists the auditor in the revenue settlements, and performs
various other duties.

Second Clerk, $750 00; Third Clerk, $600 00.—The second clerk has
charge of the delinquent land lists, and in common with the third clerk,

performs a variety of duties appertaining to the current business, such as
examining and correcting commissioners' books, insolvents in the revenue,
and militia fines, &c. &c. The auditor is also authorized to employ an extra
clerk, in his discretion, at the rate of $50 per month, growing out of
the accumulated labors of the office from revolutionary claims, &c. The
incidental expenses of the office in the last fiscal year, including stationery,
fuel, and sweeper, and excluding postage, amounted to $280 75. The postage
alone amounted to $1,050.

Second Auditor, $1800 00.—The second auditor is an ex-officio director
of the James river company, board of public works, literary fund, and northwestern
turnpike company, and audits all the accounts appertaining thereto.
He is moreover superintendent of the literary fund, and clerk to the board
of directors. He is also ex-officio secretary to the board of public works,
and one of the commissioners for removing free people of color. He is
entitled to no extra compensation.

First Clerk, $900 00; Second Clerk, $600 00.—The first clerk represents
the second auditor in his absence, and when necessary, acts as clerk
to the literary fund, and secretary to the board of public works; keeps the
books of the James river company and board of public works, and assists
the second auditor in the current business. The second clerk keeps the
books of the literary fund and northwestern turnpike company, and attends
to other duties. The incidental expenses of the office, and of the several
boards connected therewith, for the past fiscal year, embracing, fuel, stationery,
sweeper, pay of messengers, and clerks of boards, postage, printing, and
miscellaneous expenses, amounted to $1,172 64.

Register of the Land Office, $1500 00.—The register's duties are principally
defined in the general revised land law of 1st March, 1819. He
has no perquisites, his fees of office being required to be paid into the treasury.

First Clerk of the Land Office, $900 00.—The first clerk receives and
examines surveys, &c. and issues grants, &c.

Second Clerk, $600.—The second clerk is engaged principally in recording.
The incidental expenses of the land office the past fiscal year, including
fuel, stationery, parchment for grants, and sweeper, amounted to $625 29.

Public Printer, $2600 00.—$1,000 of the public printer's salary is paid
quarterly. The residue annually, after the completion of the sessions acts.
The salary is exclusive of extra printing. The amount paid during the
last fiscal year for printing legislative documents, extra copies of the acts
and journals of the library, &c. &c. amounted to $1,836 64, which is probably
about a fair annual average.

Superintendent of the Penitentiary, $2000 00; First and Second Assistant
Keepers $700 each; Third, Fourth, Firth, Sixth, and Seventh Assistant
Keepers, $600 each.—Neither the keeper nor assistant keepers receive
any extra compensation. The auditor is not informed as to the particular
distribution of duties among the assistants. The 6th and 7th assistants
were for the first time so denominated in the act of 8th March, 1833. They
were previously called turnkey and delivery clerk.

Clerk, $600 00.—The clerk keeps the accounts of the institution, and
acts as clerk to the board of directors. He has no perquisites.

Five Directors, at $150 each.—The directors are paid annually, at the
rate of $3 per day, for each day's attendance; not to exceed $150.

Surgeon to the Penitentiary and Public Guard, $900 00.—Attends the

sick convicts at the penitentiary and soldiers of the public guard, and is entitled
to no perquisites of office.

General Agent or Store-Keeper to the Penitentiary.—The agent for selling
penitentiary manufactures is allowed a commission of seven per centum
upon sales, in lieu of salaries to himself and clerks.

Adjutant General, $500 00.—For the various laws respecting the adjutant
general, see 1 Rev Code, pages 94 95, 96 and 98, and Supplement,
pages 60, 64, 81 and 84.

Vaccine Agent, $500 00.—The allowance is paid semi-annually, on the
order of the executive. The auditor is informed by the agent that there are
numerous applications for vaccine matter. No perquisites of office.

Superintendant of the Westham Magazine, $150 00.—It is understood
that no duties are now required of this officer, the magazine not being used.

Keeper of the Rolls and Clerk of the House of Delegates, $200 00.—
The clerk of the house of delegates is ex-officio keeper of the rolls, and it
is in the latter character, that he is entitled to the stated salary of $200 per
annum. As clerk, his allowance was fixed at $150 per week, by the act of
16th February, 1822. Out of this weekly allowance, the clerk of the
house of delegates employs an assistant in the office during the sessions of
the legislature, and defrays the expense of enrolling and engrossing the acts.
Besides his official duties during the session, he is required after the adjournment
of the legislature, to arrange and cause to be published, with
marginal notes and indexes, the laws of that body. His perquisites consist
in fees for certified copies of the acts of assembly, but it is understood that
they amount to a very inconsiderable sum. The incidental expenses of the
office of the clerk during the last fiscal year, including fuel, stationery for
the house of delegates, binding journals, parchment, &c. amounted to
$333 48.—Total amount of Civil List, $74,553 33.

Though not strictly within the terms of the resolution of the house
of delegates, it is perhaps required by its spirit, that the allowances to the
officers of the general assembly, so far as they have been fixed by law,
should be added.

The speaker of the senate is entitled, under the act of 16th February,
1822, to $6 per day, mileage and ferriages. The speaker of the house of
delegates, to $8 per day, mileage and ferriages. The clerk of the senate,
to $75 per week. The sergeant at arms to the senate, to $30 per week.
The sergeant of the house of delegates, to $28 per week, and fees for arrests.
The clerks of each of the committees to the house of delegates, to
$35 per week. The door keepers to both houses, each to $28 per week.
The printer to the senate, to $600 for the session. The only clerks of committees
of the house of delegates, whose allowances were fixed by the act
of 16th February, 1822, were those of propositions and grievances, elections
and claims, courts of justice, and roads and navigation. Other clerks of
committees have been occasionally appointed, and their wages paid by a
special clause in the annual appropriation law.

It may also be proper to add, that pursuant to the resolution of the general
assembly of 21st February, 1833, the executive has employed an agent
to examine certain revolutionary documents, with a salary of $1,200 per
annum.

LAWS.

On the third of July, 1776, the convention which met to adopt a constitution

for the state, having declared it independent, passed an ordinance declaring
that "The common law of England, all statutes or acts of Parliament
made in aid thereof prior to the fourth year of the reign of King
James the first, and which were of a general nature and not local to that
kingdom, should be considered as in full force, until the same should be
altered by the Legislature."

After this the Legislature re-enacted by special acts all of the statutes of
the British Parliament which they thought applicable and necessary; and
on the 27th December, 1792, declared that no statute or act of Parliament
should have any force or authority within this commonwealth,—saving all
judicial and remedial writs which might have been sued out before that act.

The common law, the constitution and statutes of Virginia, the constitution
of the United States and the laws and treaties made in pursuance thereof,
constitute the whole law of Virginia.

RELIGION.

Although the bill of rights, in 1776, declared that all men were equally
entitled to the free exercise of religion, according to the dictates of conscience,
yet the first constitution contained no express provision on the subject.
The legislature, in 1785, passed an act for establishing religious freedom,
and subsequently repealed all laws which recognized the Protestant
Episcopal Church as the legal establishment. The glebe lands, and other
church property, were vested in the overseers of the poor, for charitable
uses, reserving only to the living incumbents an estate for life, and exempting
the church buildings from confiscation. The new constitution of 1830
fully recognises absolute religious freedom as a part of the fundamental
law. The Episcopal church, which, after the loss of its revenues, suffered
almost total extinction in Virginia, has revived, in the last twenty years, by
the voluntary support of its friends, and is now distinguished by numerous
and wealthy members, and by a pious and intelligent clergy. In 1834 the
number of ministers in the State, including two bishops, was 59, churches,
58, and 2840 communicants. In the same year, the Presbyterians numbered
117 churches, 100 ministers, 11,413 communicants; the Methodists,
168 ministers, communicants 34,316 whites, and 7,447 colored, total 41,763;
the Baptists, 261 ministers, churches 450, and communicats 54,302, of
whom it is conjectured that one-half are slaves. The precise distinction between
the regular Baptists and the Reformers, called the disciples of Christ,
not being in all cases drawn, there is no coming to any thing like certain
knowledge, but it is supposed they do not exceed 10,000 in number, neither
are they so systematically arrayed as to afford any accuracy in their statistics,
either as to the number of teachers, congregations, meeting-houses,
&c. Attempts are now being made for a better arrangement of their affairs.
The increase of new members, for the last two or three years, has
been so great that it has not been possible to keep pace with the demand
for preachers, meeting-houses, &c. They have advanced in the U. States,
within 10 years, from a few in number, to something like 150,000. The
Catholics have 5 ministers, and 10 congregations; but the number of lay
members is not ascertained. It will be perceived that the Baptists and Methodists
are the most numerous sects in the state; and the estimate does not
include a considerable number of separatists from both communions. Besides
these, there are Friends, Lutherans, Dunkers, Unitarians, Jews, &c.

scattered through the state, whose numbers are not accurately known. The
Presbyterians have a theological seminary in Prince Edward, and the Episcopalians
one near Alexandria, both of which institutions have flourished
by private liberality. The state, in its political capacity, has always manifested
a strong jealousy of all ecclesiastical establishments; yet the Virginians
are generous in private contributions towards objects of religion and
benevolence. Sunday schools, and societies for promoting temperance, African
colonization, &c., have been extensively patronized in late years.

EDUCATION.

                   

Literary Fund—This Fund was established by the Legislature in 1809, by devoting the proceeds of all escheats, fines, and forfeitures, to the encouragement of learning. In 1816 it was encreased by the liberal appropriation of the debt due from the United States to Virginia, on account of advances made by the State in the late war with Great Britain. The permanent capital of this fund amounted, in September, 1833, to		$1,551,857 47
Of this there was invested in stocks, loans and debts,		$1,551,803 34
Leaving in the treasury to the credit of the fund,		54 13
To which balance must be added the undrawn school quotas, amounting to	$20,256 74
First deducting the amt invested in bank stock, of	7,150 00
		13,106 74
Which leaves a total balance to the credit of the fund of		$13,160 87
The revenue arising from this fund amounted, in 1833, to		$78,340 61
Of which there was expended		62,927 18
Leaving a balance, to encrease the capital, of		$15,413 43

When the Legislature appropriated the United States debt to this fund,
it at the same time gave $230,000, and an annuity of $15,000 from the fund,
to the University of Virginia.

Primary Schools—The sum of $45,000 annually has been appropriated
from the revenue of the Literary Fund, to the different counties, in proportion
to their white population, for the sole purpose of instructing poor
children in the elements of learning. This sum is placed under the management
and control of School Commissioners, appointed by the Court of each
county.

The primary school system has been modified from time to time since its establishment,—and
is now under the control of the Second Auditor, who
renders an annual report to the Legislature, of the disbursement of the fund,
founded on the returns of the county commissioners.—As the public bounty
is confined to the offspring of indigent parents, a plan is now partially in
operation, by which contributions may be received from individuals to establish
schools free for all classes of pupils; and strong hope is entertained
that the experiment will prove successful, notwithstanding the difficulties
which arise from the mixed population of one portion of the state, and the
scattered population and rugged surface of the other. Experience has already
demonstrated the utility of even the existing system, and thousands
who must have groped through life in the darkness of ignorance, have had
the cheering light of knowledge shed upon them by means of the primary

schools. We annex the Second Auditor's abstract of the number of poor
children taught in each county, the expense, &c. for the year 1832-3:

ABSTRACT of School Commissioners' Reports for the year 1832, received
between 30th September, 1832, and 1st October, 1833.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         

COUNTIES AND TOWNS.	No. of School Commissioners in each county.	No. of common schools attended by poor children.	No. of poor children in each county.	No. of poor children sent to school.	Aggregate number of days attendance of poor children at school.	Average number of days attendance of each poor child at school.	Rate of tuition per diem in each county.	Average amount paid for each poor child, including all expenses.	Expenditures in 1832, for tuition, and all other expenses.
Albemarle,	15	49	600	181	13020	71	4 cts.	$3 15	$570 74
Amelia,	8	13	120	49	6147	125	4	5 57	273 08
Amherst,	15	25	250	85	5383	63	4	2 87	243 74
Alleghany,	8	10	80	42	2016	48	4	2 08	87 29
Accomac,	12	30	750	256	14895	54	3¾	2 31	592 22
Augusta,	15	65	600	437	21003	48	4	2 02	883 59
Bath,	10	17	100	99	3901	39	3¾	1 44	142 53
Bedford,	15	29	450	338	19656	58	4	2 55	861 65
Berkeley,	15	34	530	349	24518	70	3¼	2 45	854 14
Botetourt,	12	45	325	300	22843	76	4	3 28	982 58
Brooke,	9	29	410	268	19383	72	2½	1 98	530 13
Buckingham,	10	65	250	136	11488	84	4	3 67	498 90
Brunswick,	-	-	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Cabell,	7	17	200	117	6399	55	4	2 40	280 76
Campbell,	8	29	350	115	5968	52	4	2 12	244 57
Caroline,	8	29	450	157	11577	74	4	3 31	519 88
Charles City,	-	-	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Charlotte,	8	23	300	95	8072	85	4	3 79	360 16
Chesterfield,	11	30	500	178	14042	79	4	3 38	601 65
Culpeper,	15	49	500	330	22927	69	4	3 07	1012 93
Cumberland,	9	20	100	91	8647	95	4	4 14	376 73
Dinwiddie,	12	20	120	61	9658	158	4	6 77	412 94
Essex,	7	12	300	56	4420	79	4	3 26	183 92
Elizabeth City,	7	2	50	21	776	37	4	2 16	45 39
Fairfax,	9	23	500	183	10650	58	4	2 38	435 50
Fauquier,	-	-	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Franklin,	9	24	500	285	14093	49	3½	1 82	518 50
Fayette,	-	-	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Frederick,	9	100	650	428	31500	74	4	2 77	1186 85
Floyd,	6	6	150	33	1444	44	4	3 20	105 52
Fluvanna,	8	18	100	43	3711	86	4	3 88	166 83
Grayson,	7	41	350	307	13010	42	4	1 77	544 15
Greenbrier,	10	20	500	239	12106	50	4	2 25	537 90
Greensville,	-	-	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Giles,	6	19	225	128	7342	57	3½	2 20	281 66
Gloucester,	14	15	160	36	2645	73	4	3 48	125 42
Goochland,	11	25	250	57	6030	106	4	4 60	262 57
Halifax,	12	60	1000	242	16541	69	4	2 91	704 21
Hampshire,	14	48	800	545	22048	40	4	1 67	912 14
Hanover,	12	50	350	36	3486	97	4	4 59	165 20
Hardy,	15	21	250	100	7646	76	4	3 32	332 23
Harrison,	15	86	900	754	36200	48	2½	1 29	976 13
Henry,	5	10	90	65	4312	66	3¼	2 30	149 52
Henrico,	-	-	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Isle of Wight,	10	29	350	198	9902	50	4	2 24	442 98
James City,	-	-	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Jackson,	-	-	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Jefferson,	14	31	350	217	17105	78	4	3 25	705 26
Kanawha,	14	24	450	298	19217	64	4	2 73	814 72
King & Queen,	9	25	200	117	7129	61	4	2 73	320 22
King Ceorge,	6	8	150	56	5766	103	4	4 46	249 92
King William,	7	22	200	67	5418	81	4	3 52	236 10
Lancaster,	9	8	150	45	2506	56	4	2 84	117 91
Lee,	10	21	500	163	9726	60	4	2 48	404 34
Lewis,	9	34	500	235	11654	50	2½	1 30	304 99
Logan,	-	-	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Loudon,	15	75	900	420	29383	70	4	2 96	1230 18
Louisa,	12	27	250	123	12260	100	4	4 10	505 13
Lunenburg,	11	15	300	83	6256	75	4	3 40	282 41
Madison,	9	15	200	78	5984	76	4	3 18	248 10
Mason,	9	19	175	127	6697	53	3¾	2 23	283 41
Matthews,	6	13	90	62	6975	112	3	3 55	220 29
Mecklenburg,	10	80	300	151	14282	94	4	4 14	625 62
Middlesex,	9	10	150	133	11359	85	4	4 06	539 91
Monongalia,	9	80	1000	637	32341	51	2½	1 39	889 15
Monroe,	11	25	450	192	10454	54	3½	2 05	395 40
Montgomery,	8	9	300	68	4745	70	4	3 05	207 44
Morgan,	6	9	150	66	3783	57	3⅔	2 46	162 75
Nansemond,	11	20	150	66	5373	81	4	3 60	238 51
Nelson,	7	18	247	57	3689	65	4	2 96	169 06
New Kent,	9	9	150	28	2037	73	4	3 65	102 22
Nicholas,	7	18	150	99	5214	52	3	1 82	179 80
Norfolk County,	8	33	300	154	11423	74	4	3 13	482 36
Norfolk Borough,	6	30	100	80	22436	280	1½	4 28	342 55
Northampton,	9	16	130	99	6835	69	4	3 00	297 65
Northumberland,	9	17	190	89	5331	58	4	2 73	242 89
Nottoway,	8	16	150	40	5390	135	4	6 19	247 70
Orange,	11	40	240	90	7745	86	4	3 70	333 78
Ohio,	10	40	500	282	23032	81	21-12	1 84	520 06
Patrick,	12	19	150	135	8786	65	3	2 09	281 92
Page,	6	20	250	109	5469	50	4	2 17	237 25
Pendleton,	15	36	400	356	14298	40	3¼	1 45	515 43
Preston,	7	23	220	190	9374	49	3	1 61	306 14
Petersburg,	12	18	200	30	6900	230	3	7 62	228 57
Prince Edward,	10	15	150	38	3008	79	4	3 33	126 45
Prince George,	11	12	120	26	3028	116	4	5 30	137 80
Prince William,	8	18	400	178	11655	65	4	2 81	500 18
Princess Anne,	8	14	200	50	6124	124	4	2 36	267 94
Pittsylvania,	15	54	1100	368	19752	54	3¾	2 26	830 62
Powhatan,	6	20	80	23	2596	113	4	4 64	106 84
Pocahontas,	5	17	120	100	6018	60	3	2 11	211 29
Randolph,	9	22	350	197	7947	40	3⅓	1 37	280 64
Richmond County,	-	-	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Richmond City,	9	45	400	70	15750	225	3¾	8 42	497 70
Rockbridge,	12	44	460	320	21692	67	3¾	2 73	873 76
Rockingham,	13	85	700	351	22510	64	3½	2 54	890 05
Russell,	8	17	300	187	11608	62	3	2 24	418 44
Stafford,	9	15	250	152	8299	54	3¼	2 00	305 11
Shenandoah,	13	82	800	522	35675	68	4	2 89	1512 61
Scott,	7	23	475	143	5592	39	4	1 69	242 61
Smyth,	-	-	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Southampton,	11	26	250	212	12203	57	4	2 43	515 45
Spottsylvania,	12	30	200	120	8961	75	4	3 35	402 39
Surry	5	9	130	80	8449	105	4	4 67	374 27
Sussex,	11	25	200	95	7919	83	4	3 57	338 95
Tazewell,	-	-	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Tyler,	11	20	450	216	10958	51	2	1 20	259 46
Washington,	-	-	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Warwick,	9	2	37	5	198	40	4	4 08	20 42
Westmoreland,	-	-	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Williamsburg,	7	4	20	4	239	60	4	3 14	12 56
Wythe,	10	29	250	159	9437	59	3⅓	2 35	373 53
Wood,	9	34	400	288	11627	40	3	1 27	366 34
York,	7	11	120	83	7020	48	4	3 52	292 68
		2833	32804	16669	1083105				42033 06
		1	2	3	4				5

RECAPITULATION.

                       

Number of schools in 100 counties and towns, as per column 1,		2,833
Number of poor children in ditto, as per column 2,		32,804
Number of poor children sent to common schools in ditto, as per column 3,	16,669
Number sent to district schools, as per statement A,	412
Total number of poor children educated,		17,081
Amount expended for tuition at common schools, and all other expenses, for books, compensation to officers, &c. as per column 5,	42,033 06
Ditto, at district free schools, as per statement A,	963 21
Total expenditure for tuition, &c.		$42,996 27
Average number of days actual attendance of each poor child at common schools,		65
Average amount paid for each poor child, including books and writing materials, clerks' and treasurers' compensation, at common schools,		$2 52½
Ditto, at district free schools, per statement A,		2 33¾
Average rate paid for each day's actual attendance at common schools, including books, &c. and officers' compensation,		3 9-10

STATEMENT A.

Abstract of School Commissioners' Reports, shewing the operations of the
District Free Schools, in the Counties in which they have been established,
during the year ending 30th September, 1832:

         

COUNTIES.	No. of district in each county	No. of districts in which free schools have been established.	Annual compensation allowed teachers by school commissioners.	Annual compensation allowed teachers by inhabitants.	Total annual compensation to teachers.	Whole number of children at schools.	Actual amount paid by school commissioners, to teachers, for books, &c. for poor children.	Number of poor children at schools.
Franklin,	34	8	398 00	—	—	436	342 25	154
Monroe,	31	2	—	—	—	—	54 21	10
Washington,	49	24	914 00	3167 00	4081 00	1067	566 75	248
							953 21	412

The actual payments made by school commissioners to teachers, being
$963 21, the actual cost of each poor child, for the portions of the year
for which such payments were made, will average $2 33¾.

COLLEGES.

William and Mary—This institution, which is at Williamsburg,
formerly the capitol of Virginia, and next to Harvard College, the oldest
in the United States, derives its name from William and Mary, sovereigns

of England, by whom its charter was granted in 1691. It received
with its charter a grant of £1,985, 20,000 acres of land, and a penny
a pound on tobacco exported from Virginia and Maryland; and it was further
aided by private donations, particularly by the munificence of the Hon.
Robert Boyle. In 1693, the Assembly of Virginia ordered that it should
be built at Williamsburg, and made some additional grants, so that its annual
income became upwards of £3,000; but it was subsently greatly diminished.—"The
funds," as recently stated by the President of the college,
"consist of bonds, stocks, lands, and houses, amounting in all to about
$150,000, not yielding, however, a revenue in proportion to the amount."—
"No regular list of students or graduates, has been kept till within the last
few years; the number, therefore, of alumini we cannot determine; but it
is certainly greater than from any other college south of the Potomac.—
Owing to peculiar circumstances, the graduates have always been few.
Nine-tenths of the students have gone through one course without applying
for a degree." Many of the most eminent men of Virginia were educated
here. The condition of the college, at different periods, has been very
variable; but, after a period of declension, it has had, for some years past, a
considerable degree of prosperity. It is under the legislative government
of a board of 24 trustees who supply the vacancies in their own body.

The college edifice is a large misshapen pile of buildings. The college
library contains 3,500, and the students' library, 600 volumes.

The Rev. James Blair, D. D. was named president in the charter, but is
said not to have entered upon the duties of the office till 1729; he died in
1742, and was succeeded by the Rev. William Stith, who died in 1750.—
The Rev. James Madison, D. D. (Bishop of Virginia,) was president from
1777 to 1812. His successors have been the Rev. W. H. Wilmer, Dr. J.
Augustine Smith, and the Rev. Dr. Adam Empie.

Faculty in 1833—Rev. Adam Empie, D. D., Pres & Prof. Mor. Phil.

William B. Rogers, Prof. Chemistry and Nat. Philosophy.

Dabney Brown, Prof. Humanity.

Thomas R. Dew, Prof. History, Metaphysics, &c.

Robert Saunders, Jr. Prof. Mathematics.

Beverley Tucker, Prof. Law.

Number of students in the Senior and Junior classes in 1833, 26; irregular
students 15; law students 12; academical 37; total 90. Graduates
in 1829, 5, in 1830, 7; in 1831, 15; in 1832, 11.

Commencement is on the 4th of July.—One vacation, from commencement
to the last Monday in October.

Annual Expenses—for a Junior student; board and lodging $100; washing,
fuel, candles, &c. $20; three fees for the moral, mathematical and chemical
courses, and half a fee for the metaphysical course, $70; matriculation
$5,—total $195. For a senior student $185. The law course commences
at the opening of the college, and terminates on the Saturday before
the last Monday in April. Expenses, board, washing, and fuel, $90;
tuition $20, matriculation $5;—total, $115.

The grammar school opens on the 15th of October, and closes on the 1st
of August. Expenses, board, including every thing, $100; tuition $20;—
total $120.

Hampden Sydney, in Prince Edward county:

Washington College, in Rockbridge.

Randolh Macon, at Boydton, in Mecklenburg co: are all flouriching
institutions, and a full account may be seen of them in their respective counties.
We pass on to the principal literary institution of the state, the

University of Virginia.—The legislature of Virginia at the session
of 1817-18, adopted measures for establishing an institution then proposed
to be named Central College, and 24 commissioners were appointed to select
a site for it. They accordingly selected a pleasant and elevated spot nearly
two miles from Charlottesville, in the county of Albemarle, not far from the
centre of the population of the state. Their choice was confirmed by the
legislature in 1819, and an act was passed incorporating the institution by
the title of the University of Virginia, which went into operation in 1825.
It was erected and endowed by the state; and it owes its origin and peculiar
organization chiefly to Mr. Jefferson. It has a fine collection of buildings,
consisting of four parallel ranges about 600 feet in length, and 200 feet
apart, suited to the accommodation of 9 professors and upwards of 200 students;
which together with the real estate, cost $333,996. It posseses a
very valuable library of 10,000 volumes, and a philosophical apparatus,
which together cost $36,948. The state gives annually $15,000 for the
support of the institution. The whole annual income of the University is
about $18,500. The professors are paid partly by a fixed salary and partly
by fees received from the students; but the sums which they severally
receive are widely different, varying in ordinary years from $1,600 to
$3,500.

The plan of this University differs materially from that of other institutions
of the kind in the United States. The students are not divided into
four classes, with a course of studies embracing four years; but the different
branches of science and literature here taught are styled schools, and
the student is at liberty to attend which he pleases, and graduate in each,
when prepared. The first degree was conferred in 1828—the number of
graduates in that year was 10; in 1829, 12; 1830, 30; 1831, 20; 1832, 46;
total, 118; of these 16 were graduates in ancient languages; 14 in mathematics;
23 in natural philosophy; 9 in chemistry; 17 in moral philosophy;
22 in medicine; and 17 in law. The title of "Master of Arts of the University
of Virginia," was conferred on one student at the commencement of
1832, and on several in each year since. To obtain this title it is necessary
to gradaute in the several schools of mathematics, ancient languages,
moral philosophy, natural philosophy, chemistry, and by a recent enactment
in some two of the modern languages.

                 

Number of Students in the School of	Ancient Languages, from 1825 to '33, 519—in 1833, 58
	Modern Languages, from 1825 to '33, 425—in 1833, 22
	Mathematics, from 1825 to '33, 619—in 1833, 76
	Natural Philosophy, 1825 to '33, 410—in 1833, 83
	Chemistry & Materia Medica, '33, 407—in 1833, 69
	Medicine, & Materia Medica, '33, 238—in 1833, 40
	Anatomy and Surgery, Medica, '33, 183—in 1833, 35
	Moral Philosophy, Surgery, Medica, '33, 252—in 1833, 38
	Law, Philosophy, Surgery, Medica, '33, 201—in 1833, 37

Annual Expenses.—Board, including bed, washing, and attendance, during
the session from September 10 to July 20, $100; fuel and candles $15;
room-rent $8; use of library and public rooms, $15; fees to three professessors
(to one only $50; to two, $30 each; if more than two, $25 each,)
$75; total $213.

Faculty in 1834—Gesner Harrison, Prof. Ancient Languages.

George Blætterman, Prof. Modern Languages.

Charles Bonnycastle, Prof. Mathematics.

Robert Patterson, Prof. Natural Philosophy.

John P. Emmet, Prof. Chemistry and Materia Medica.

Augustus L. Warner, Prof. Anatomy and Surgery.

Alfred T. Magill, Prof. Medicine.

George Tucker, Prof. Moral Philosophy and Political Economy.

John A. G. Davis, Prof. Law.

Chairman of the Faculty, in 1834, Professor Bonnycastle.—The chair,
man is annually chosen from the professors, by the Visitors.

Board of Visitors, in 1834, Joseph C Cabell, Rector, Chapman Johnson,
John H. Cocke, Thomas J. Randolph, W. C. Rives, and William H. Brodnax.
The Visitors are appointed by the governor and council, every four
years, and choose their own rector. A more detailed account of this institution
is given in Albemarle county.

MILITARY ORGANIZATION, ARMS, &c.

Abstract of the annual return of the Militia of the State of Virginia, for
the year 1833—viz:

           

General Staff,		104
Cavalry,		7,635
Artillery,		5,301
Grenadiers, Light Infantry, Riflemen, and Infantry of the line,		89,079
Total Militia,		102,119
Decrease during 1833,	672

Which are divided as follows:

                 

Divisions,	5
Brigades,	22
Regiments,	154
Troops of Cavalry,	110
Companies of Artillery,	72
Companies of Grenadiers,	5
Companies of Light Infantry,	74
Companies of Riflemen,	120
Companies of Infantry of the line,	927

In these divisions the officers and men, are divided thus:

                                                           

Major Generals	4
Brigadier Generals	21
Adjutant Inspector and Quarter Master General,	1
Aids-de-Camps,	29
Division Inspectors,	4
Division Quarter Masters,	4
Brigade Inspectors,	22
Brigade Quarter Masters,	19
Colonels,	139
Lieutenant Colonels,	135
Majors,	135
Adjutants,	138
Quarter Masters,	141
Paymasters,	137
Chaplains,	2
Surgeons,	138
Surgeons Mates,	130
Captains,	1080
Lieutenants,	1095
Ensigns,	588
Cornets,	77
Sergeant Majors,	126
Quarter Master Sergeants,	115
Musicians,	860
Buglers and Trumpeters,	53
Sergeants,	3642
Corporals,	2158
Privates,	91128
Commissioned Officers,	4037
Non-Commissioned Officers, Musicians and Privates,	98082

Arms, &c. in the hands of the militia, and remaining in the Lexington
Arsenal, September 30, 1833, viz:

                           

Brass four pounders,	2
Brass six pounders,	5
Iron four pounders,	5
Iron six pounders,	26
Muskets,	37181
Bayonets,	36857
Carbines,	120
Rifles,	2174
Horsemans' pistols,	1991
Cavalry swords,	2053
Artillery swords,	353
Colors,	167
Drums and fifes,	375
Bugles, Trumpets, &c. &c.	22

Reports of Arms, &c. Remaining in the Armory at Richmond, on the 30th
September, 1833—viz:

                         

Brass mortars,		2
32	pounders, brass,	6
Long 6 pounders, brass,		1
24	pounders, iron,	4
12	pounders, iron,	36
6	pounders, iron,	129
4	pounders, iron,	43
Muskets,		38,472
Rifles, Virginia manufactory,		880
Rifles, received from the U. S.		1851
Carbines,		20
Pistols,		702
Cavalry swords, &c. &c.		3126

Regulations.—An act for the better organization of the militia, passed
1833-34, revises and consolidates all the existing laws on the subject of the
militia, with amendments, of which the following are the principal provisions:
the officers are required to be trained by the commandments of regiments,
instead of by the brigade inspectors; the musters are increased, so
that there will be one regimental muster in the spring, one battalion muster
in the fall, and a company muster in the spring and fall, each making four
musters in the year; volunteer companies having two extra additional musters,
making six in the year, but the regimental courts of enquiry have the
power within any regiment to dispense with any of the extra musters if
they think proper, and the power of substituting battalion musters, in the
spring, in lieu of the regimental muster, and also to prescribe the time and
place of muster; the commandants of regiments to prescribe the time and
place of the trainings of the officers, instead of the brigadier generals, as
heretofore. All companies are to be officered with a captain, four lieutenants,
five sergeants, and six corporals each; volunteer companies are permitted
to adopt their own by-laws, and the commandants thereof to appoint
the time for their extra musters; fines for failing to attend such extra musters
to be imposed by the courts of enquiry, to be collected by the sheriffs,
and paid to the treasurers of such companies, to be disposed of by the companies
as they may deem proper; all uniformed volunteer companies to be
armed. The act exempts from militia duty, (except in time of war, insurrection
or invasion,) all members of volunteer companies who produce to
their regimental courts of enquiry, certficates from their commanding officers
of seven years service. Companies of artillery equipped with ordnance,
to be allowed one dollar per day for each horse employed in drawing
their artillery and caissons, and the governor is authorized to require any
company of artillery to perform the duties of light artillery.

The uniform of the respective corps of the militia, to be the same with
that of the United States' army, unless the governor, by proclamation, shall
otherwise order; but volunteer companies now uniformed, are not required
to change their uniform. Battalion courts of enquiry to be held in October

or November, and regimental courts in November or December; the act
authorizing boards of the officers of the different regiments to be convened
at any time to transact any other business of the regiment other than the
assessment or remission of fines. The fines on non-commissioned officers
and soldiers for failing to attend musters, to be not less than 75 cents, nor
more than three dollars for each delinquency. Musicians may be allowed by
the regimental courts of enquiry, two dollars per day for each lawful muster,
the claims to be paid by the sheriff within three months thereafter, and
provision is made for the more prompt payment than heretofore of drafts for
the purposes of the militia. One stand of colors only is allowed to each
regiment, and colors and musical instruments are not allowed oftener than
once in ten years, nor unless sanctioned by the regimental court of enquiry.
The adjutant general is allowed the brevet rank of a brigadier general.—
The executive to cause the act, together with the articles of war, to be printed,
and one copy to be furnished to each commissioned officer. The act not
to take effect till the first of January, 1835.

LUNATIC ASYLUMS.

This state has two lunatic asylums one is located in eastern Virginia, at
Williamsburg, James city county, the other in western Virginia, at Staunton,
Augusta county. There were in the lunatic hospital at Williamsburg,
on the first of January, 1834, 37 male and 18 female patients—total 55.—
During the year 1833, nine died, and three were discharged. The aggregate
expense for the support of this institution during the past year, was
$9,250 87, according to the director's report. In the lunatic hospital at
Staunton, there were on the 28th day of December, 1833, 19 male, and 18
female patients—total 37; during the same year, one died. There was expended
for the support of this establishment, during the past year, $6,078
31, according to the report of the committee.

A considerable addition is now being made to the building of the last
mentioned asylum.

PENITENTIARY.

We believe this system has been as successful in few states, as in Virginia.
The annexed table exhibits the fact that it is only necessary to send back
again one in (nearly) every twenty-one; which seems to exhibit a very successful
reformation:—whilst the reports of its fiscal concerns prove that so
far from being a burthen, it brings to the State a small annual revenue. To
punish crime, and reform the criminal, without expense to the state, is the
object in view—our system certainly attains the latter completely, and approximates,
in a very beneficial degree, to the former:

A TABLE shewing the number of convicts, received in the Penitentiary
of Virginia, from the time it was opened in 1800, with the pardons,
deaths, escapes, and discharges in each year, until the 30th of November,
1833, and the number remaining on that day.

                                                                       

YEARS.	No. received.	No. pardoned each year.	No. died each year.	No. escaped each year.	No. discharged each year.	No. in the prisons on the 1st Jan. each year.	No. received for 2d, 3d and 4th offences and included in the whole No. received.
1800	21	—	1	1	—	—
1801	23	—	1	—	10	19
1802	44	—	1	—	16	41
1803	55	3	2	—	31	68
1804	41	1	1	3	33	87
1805	50	—	1	—	21	90
1806	40	5	5	1	34	118
1807	54	18	3	—	22	113	3
1808	37	11	—	—	29	124	1
1809	40	8	1	—	31	121	4
1810	25	11	3	—	20	121	1
1811	33	10	5	—	I8	112	1
1812	50	34	—	—	11	112	5
1813	52	17	5	—	33	117	-
1814	33	23	3	—	15	114	3
1815	45	9	6	—	14	106	6
1816	74	9	3	—	26	122	6
1817	77	16	3	—	39	158	4
1818	60	9	7	—	47	171	6
1819	80	12	11	—	34	168	5
1820	93	20	9	—	44	191	5
1821	81	13	15	—	55	211	4
1822	103	20	12	—	60	209	5
1823	83	12	14	—	66	220	9
1824	62	15	16	6	45	211	4
1825	34	1	23	—	47	191	3
1826	52	6	18	—	33	154	2
1827	43	4	17	—	28	149	2
1828	50	6	17	—	21	143	1
1829	55	4	21	—	24	149	-
1830	57	4	15	—	25	155	-
1831	49	5	25	—	22	168	4
1832	43	13	51	—	20	165	1
1833	37	11	9	—	19	124	1
	1786	330	330	11	993	Av'ge,122	86

These convicts were employed in the following occupations, viz.

                                                     

Boot and Shoe making,	14
Harness making,	2
Tailoring,	10
Blacksmiths,	8
Strickers,	8
Nailors,	3
Mill Stone makers,	2
Firemen,	1
Weavers,	17
Quillers and spoolers,	5
Wool carders,	2
Wool spinners,	2
Splicers,	3
Fuller and Washer,	1
Wheelwrights,	7
Carpenters,	6
Coopers,	7
Yard hand, pumps, &c.	2
Runners,	2
Nurses,	2
Cooks,	3
Clerk,	1
Invalids,	5
Total number of men,	113
Women (all colored persons) employed sewing,	9
Total of all colors of both sexes,	122
Number of slaves for transportation,	7

The act making solitude not more than half or less than one-eigth of the
term of conviction, and requiring each person to be confined in his dark
and solitary cell for six months immediately after being received, was in
force from the 1st of March, 1824, to the 9th of March, 1826. It was then
provided, that three months of solitary confinement should be suffered at
the commencement of each person's term, and three months more at the
close. This law continued in force until the 27th February, 1829; when
it was provided that the first three months should be omitted; but the three
months at the close of the term was continued until the 9th of March,
1833, when solitude was reduced to one-twelfth part of the whole term and
not to exceed one month at any one time. The wall round the prison was
not erected till 1824.

Of the number of prisoners received into the Penitentiary from 1st October,
1832 to 30th Sept. 1833, there were for—

                           

Murder,	4
Voluntary manslaughter,	5
Unlawful stabbing,	2
Stealing free negroes,	1
Arson,	2
Robbery,	1
Stealing slaves,	1
Horse stealing,	6
Grand latceny,	10
Forgery,	2
Passing counterfeit bank notes,	3
Bigamy,	1
Felony,	6
Total,	44

INTERNAL IMPROVEMENT.

Virginia is considerably behind her sisters New York and Pennsylvania
in the extent of her improvements. For this several reasons may be
assigned; first, her habitual caution and prudence in legislation, requiring
demonstration of its utility before she will embark her capital in any new
enterprize; second, the sectional jealousies of different portions of the state,
the interest of several often conflicting, with regard to any specific improvement
proposed; third, the mismanagement of her first enterprizes in
this field, have contributed to dampen her ardour ever since. Of late she
seems to be more inclined to arouse from her lethargy. There is a permanent

fund devoted to the purpose of internal improvement; by a report
in Sept. 30, 1833 this fund amounted to $1,423,661 11, to which may be
added a disposable fund of $966,847 80, [of which however $61,111 11 is
at present improductive] making in all $2,415,586 50; from which the annual
income is $144,934 00. This fund is managed by 13 directors styled
the "Board of Public Works; of which board the Governor, Treasurer,
and First Auditor are ex officio members. The board meets annually on
the first Monday in January. The members receive $4 per diem, and 20
cents a mile for travelling.

The views of Governor Tazewell upon this subject are interesting:—

"Another great Corporation connected with the fiscal concerns of the
Commonwealth, is "the Board of Public Works." This institution was
established in 1816, and endowed with all the stocks then held by the state
in different Turnpike and Canal Companies, in the Bank of Virginia and
the Farmers' Bank of Virginia, and with all the interest the state might
acquire thereafter as a bonus or premium for the incorporation of other
Banks, or for the increase of their capital, or the renewal of their charters.
These funds and their proceeds, although nominally much greater, cannot
be justly estimated, in money, at more than about two millions of dollars,
which may now, therefore, be considered as constituting the capital stock
of the Corporation. The receipts from this capital are equal to about
$115,000 annually.

"The object of this institution, was to invest its annual profits, and the proceeds
of such part of its capital as it might be thought judicious so to invest,
in any work of Internal Improvement, promising when completed, to be of
advantage to the Commonwealth, and profitable to the other proprietors of
it. But aware of the difficulties that would attend the judicious selection of
such works, the authors of the Corporation established a rule, by which it
should be governed in every case. When any work of Internal Improvement
was proposed, if after the requisite surveys of it had been made, and
its cost estimated, by officers and at the expense of the Corporation, three-fifths
of the capital deemed necessary for the completion of such a work was
subscribed by individuals, the residue was to be taken by the Corporation, and
paid for by it rateably with the sums advanced by the private stock-holders.

"If this scheme had been carried into full effect according to the original
plan, it seems quite obvious, that all the funds of the Corporation would
have been ultimately invested in the stocks of comparatively small undertakings,
to the completion of which the enterprize and unaided capital of individuals
would have been perfectly adequate: while great works, the very
magnitude of which would prevent the combination of a sufficient number of
individuals to subscribe the proportion necessary to secure the co-operation
of the state, would never have been carried into effect. Thus, while some
partial improvements might have been made, no work of general and permanent
utility would have been accomplished, and the great object of the Corporation
must have been defeated. The discovery of this was at last made;
but not until more than $900,000 of the capital of the institution had been
invested in undertakings since abandoned, or in those the profits of which
are quite inconsiderable, or much less than the average rate of profit in the
country generally.

"To remedy this defect, a modification of the original plan was adopted.
The Commonwealth assumed upon itself, exclusively, the completion of certain
great Internal Improvements, in which, from their very nature, the cooperation

of a sufficient number of individuals could not be expected, leaving
all others, deemed of less general utility, to the support of the Board of Public
Works. Thus the subject of Internal Improvement has become divided
into parts—in one of which the state is concerned exclusively, while in the
other, the Board of Public Works is but a co-partner with individuals.

"The effect of this division of the public interests, has been attended with
some hazard already, and unless much discretion is used hereafter, will be
ruinous to the Board of Public Works, and seriously oppressive to the state
itself. The funds of the Corporation not being equal to the immediate accomplishment
of all the great objects in which the Commonwealth was concerned
exclusively, and to the advancement, at the same time, of the others
in which the Board of Public Works was interested as a co-partner with individuals,
to supply the deficiency, resort was had to loans. The payment
of the interest and the reimbursement of the principal of these loans were
charged, in the first instance, upon the stock for the benefit of which the
loans had been effected, but should this prove insufficient, the funds of the
Board of Public Works were made subject to these payments; and should
a deficiency still exist, the Treasury itself was made accountable for it.

"The example of relying upon loans for the accomplishment of such public
works being once set, was soon followed in the case of works to be constructed
at the joint charge of the state and of individuals. Large sums have
been borrowed to enable the payment of the subscription of the Corporation
to these works also. The payment of the interest and the reimbursement
of the principal of these loans, were charged, in like manner, upon the corporate
funds, in the first instance, but should these prove insufficient, the
Treasury itself, as before, is made chargeable with any deficiency.

"Thus it has happened, that while a considerable portion of the capital of
this Corporation has been invested in stocks absolutely unproductive, or
very nearly so, the whole of this capital is now charged with the payment
of the interest and reimbursement of the principal of large debts, for which
the Treasury itself is ultimately liable. As yet, the income of the Corporation
is equal to the satisfaction of all its expenses, and to the payment of
the interest charged upon it. It is believed also, that the capital is sufficient
to discharge the principal of all these debts. But should any additional
burthen be imposed upon this Corporation, at this time, it is probable
that its means would not suffice to meet all its engagements, without impairing
this capital. In that event, it is obvious that ere long, the whole
weight of all these engagements must fall upon the Treasury, when to preserve
the credit of the state, new and burthensome taxes must be imposed
upon the people.

"To prevent such a result, I recommend to you most earnestly, that no
new charge be imposed upon this Corporation, at present. In a few years,
it is expected very confidently, that all the works in which it is concerned
and which are now in progress, will be completed. Unless individuals
have been greatly deceived in their estimates of the effects of these works,
the funds invested in them will then become productive. The profits of
this capital, or its proceeds will then enable the easy and speedy reimbursement
of the debts with which the Corporation is now charged. The whole
funds of the Board will then become applicable to other undertakings; and
the work of Internal Improvement may again proceed with increased vigor
and advantage. But if a different course is pursued, the ruin of this Corporation
may be the too probable consequence—grievous taxation must follow

as the necessary effect of its ruin; and the work of Internal Improvement
will receive a shock from which it will not recover for a long period.

"As a fiscal agent, the Board of Public Works has been, and under judicious
management will continue to be, of great advantage to the Commonwealth.
So long as its plans meet public approbation, it will call into
useful action the unemployed capital of individuals, making this productive
to its proprietors, and beneficial to the community. The very debts which
it may be compelled to contract occasionally, will effect all the beneficial
results, without producing any of the evils attendant upon a public debt—
provided they are confined to a limit, within which the income of the Corporation,
after satisfying its expenses, will certainly pay the interest, and its
capital surely reimburse the principal. But if a different course is adopted,
this Institution, instead of being an useful fiscal agent, will be worse than
useless. It will then become positively mischievous, acting as a perpetual
drain of the Treasury and exhausting its funds, repleted often as its coffers
must be, by heavy exactions from the people."

Navigation East of the Appalachian System.—The eastern part of Virginia
is peculiarly favored in facilities for water transportation, in the immense
and deep bay of Chesapeake and its large tributaries, the James, the
York, the Rappahannock, and the Potomac. The earth affords no other
instance of so great a physical change in so short a distance, as that between
the shallow sounds of North Carolina, and the deep water of the Chesapeake;
in the latter the largest ships of war have adequate depth almost to
the very verge of the primitive rock; ships of the line ascend the main bay
nearly to its head,—the Potomac to Alexandria,—some distance into York
river,—and up James river to the mouth of Nansemond; sloops drawing
six or seven feet water penetrate into innumerable creeks upon both sides
of the bay. Nature seems also to have been especially liberal to this state
in the peculiar direction of the channels of her rivers, making her eastern
border a common recipient of all flowing east of the Appalachian System.
The rivers of Georgia and the Carolinas, from Alatamaha to Cape Fear
inclusive (and we might say without much violence to Roanoke) flow S. E.
or S. S. E.: but from the southern border of Virginia to the Susquehannah
they flow east, and the latter river south. Much has been done to improve
the navigation in eastern Virginia, but little when compared with
the extent of country and the number of lines of communication inviting attention.

James River is navigable for vessels of 250 tons to Warwick, and 125
tons to Rocket's, the port of Richmond. At that city commences the falls
or rapids, to pass which by a navigable canal, the old James River Company
was chartered in 1784, and were collecting tolls in the year 1794.
(See Richmond, Henrico County.) The Richmond canal entered a basin
on the western side of the city, it was 25 feet wide, and 3 deep, and extended
originally 2½ miles to its junction with the river, in which space there are
12 locks, and a fall of 180 feet. Three miles above the falls there was another
short canal, with 3 locks, overcoming a fall of 34 feet. These canals and
locks, with other slight improvements opened a tolerable navigation of 12
inches water to Lynchburg. In 1825 the James River Company declared
canal navigation complete to the head of Maiden's Adventure falls, in Goochland
County, a distance of 30½ miles from Richmond. The width of the
canal is 40 feet, depth of water 3½ feet, and the expense was $623,225; the
fall overcome was 140½ feet. This last improvement was probably in proportion

to its magnitude the most promptly executed work at that time accomplished
in the United States. Besides these there is another canal
through the Blue Ridge, about 7 miles long, and 30 feet wide, overcoming
a fall of 100 feet.

James River and Kanawha Communication.—The necessity of opening
a complete communication between the Ohio and Chesapeake by this line,
has been felt by all classes in Virginia, indeed it is admitted that without it
she must sink to a very low ebb when compared with her more enterprising
sisters, in wealth, population, and importance. There has already been expended
on this line of improvement $1,274,583, of which $638,883 86,
have been expended on the lower James River Canal, the old and new improvements,—$365,207
02 on the mountain canal,—$87,389,81 on the
Kanawha,—and $171,982 49 on turnpike roads and bridges from Covington
to the Kanawha; but these improvements though of great local advantage
to the sections of country in which they are situated, by no means establish
a continuous communication. To effect this all-important object the
Legislature in 1831-2, granted a charter of incorporation to the James
River and Kanawha Company, with a capital of $5,000,000. This charter
was at first liberal, but has since been most particularly and specially
favored by the Legislature, for the purpose of inducing individual subscription;
exempting the shares from taxation, making the charter perpetual,
allowing the Banks to subscribe, and subscribing for the state an amount
far beyond her usual proportion in improvements, &c. These advantages,
and the unremitting exertions of some patriotic citizens, have (it is believed)
procured the necessary amount of subscriptions, and it is probable that the
noble work will be commenced in the spring of 1835. No human foresight
can see the limit of the advantages attendant on its success, or the evils of
its failure.[12]

Dismal Swamp Canal is another important improvement, it is said to
have been the first canal commenced in the United States, and nearly the
last finished,—it is 22½ miles in length, 40 feet wide, and 6½ deep, it passes
from Deep creek to Joyce's creek at the head of Pasquotank river, and connects
the waters of the Chesapeake with those of Albemarle sound, it is

partly in Virginia and partly in North Carolina. This canal was finished,
upon a circumscribed plan in 1822. Its dimensions have since been enlarged.
Every quarter of a mile, the canal is widened to 60 feet for turnout
stations. The locks newly constructed correspond in dimensions with
those of the Chesapeake and Delaware canal; and the old ones may be so
altered when necessary, without great difficulty. The summit level is 16½
feet above the Atlantic at mid-tide, and is supplied by a feeder of five miles'
length from lake Drummond. The basin at Deep creek, is half a mile in
length, and 15 feet above the level of tide-water. The Northwest canal
connects Northwest river [which empties into Currituck sound in N. Carolina]
with the main canal, requiring a cut of 6 miles. This canal is 24 feet
wide, and 4 feet deep.

The Appomatox has been improved from its mouth 10 miles to Fisher's
bar, and around the falls 5 or 6 miles above Petersburg.

Danville and Dan river canals are a series of improvements upon the

upper branches of the Roanoke river, upon which in Virginia and North
Carolina, the Roanoke company have expended about $350,000.

Shenandoah Canals are on the river of that name, and near Port Republic
in Rockingham county. A fall of 50 feet is overcome by six short canals
with stone locks; by which this river is rendered navigable nearly 200
miles.

The Rappahannock has been improved by locks, dams, and canals, from
Fredericksburg to Fox's mills, about 40 miles. This work was done by a
joint stock company—$30,000 of the stock belonging to individuals, and
$20,000 to the state.

North-Western Turnpike. We extract an account of this road from Gov.
Tazewell's first message, sent to the Legislature Dec. 1st, 1834:

"Another great Corporation in which the Commonwealth is exclusively
concerned, is that styled `The President and Directors of the North-Western
Turnpike Road.' This was created by an act pased in the year 1831.
Its object was, to construct a road from the town of Winchester, in the
county of Frederick, to some point on the Ohio River to be thereafter selected;
and the Corporation was authorized to borrow, on the credit of the State,
a sum or sums of money not exceeding $125,000, for the accomplishment of
the object of its creation. During the last session of the General Assembly,

an act was passed, empowering the Corporation to borrow, on the credit
of the Commonwealth, for the purpose of the road, a further sum not
exceeding $86,000.

"Under the authority given to it by these several acts, the Corporation
has borrowed the sum of $121,000 only, as yet, which may be considered
as the present capital stock of this institution. For the payment of the interest,
and the final redemption of the principal of all the sums borrowed,
the nett proceeds and surplus tolls which may arise from the road, after
keeping the same in repair, were pledged and appropriated, by the terms of
the charter. But should these funds be found inadequate, the General Assembly
has stipulated to provide other and sufficient revenues for these purposes;
and until such other sufficient funds shall be provided by law, so
much of the revenue of the Board of Public Works, not otherwise appropriated,
is pledged, as may be necessary to supply the deficiency.

"Although great progress has been made towards the completion of this
work, it is not yet finished. No profits, therefore, have been derived from
it; but it has hitherto acted as a drain of the income of the Board of Public
Works, whose revenue is bound to provide for the payment of the interest
on the capital borrowed. It is expected, however, that this improvement will
be so far completed during the next year, that it may then be made productive;
and when finished, but little doubt is entertained, that the income derived
from its tolls, will not only keep it in repair, and satisfy the interest on
the capital borrowed to construct the work, but will suffice, in time, to reimburse
the lenders of this capital. It will then become a valuable fiscal
agent."

Railroads, though but of late introduction into the United States, have
attracted considerable attention in Virginia; one has been lately executed
styled the Chesterfield Railroad, near Richmond. The results of this road
are more brilliant in proportion to its extent, than those of any similar work
in the Union. It is about 13 miles long, and connects the coal-mines of
Chesterfield with tide-water. The whole capital invested in it, including
cars for transportation, stables, horses, &c. was $150,000. The trade on
it is already 50,000 tons per annum, and the receipts for transportation during
the year 1833 were $70,000. The stock is of course at a high premium.

The Petersburg and Roanoke Railroad was the second which went into
operation in the state, which it did in midsummer 1833; the cars running
daily between its extreme points. This road commences at Petersburg, and
extends 60 miles a little W. of S. to Weldon, in N. Carolina, and the foot
of the falls of Roanoke river; the line is very direct, and the graduation in
no place exceeds 30 feet per mile, and the curves have radii of from 2 to 4
miles. Great part of the profit arising from this road is derived from the
transportation of persons. The work was began on the line in 1831, and
completed June, 1833, aggregate cost $450,000. Before the construction
of this road Norfolk had always been regarded as the proper depot and outlet
for the trade of the Roanoke valley, and would no doubt have become
possessed of it by improvements connected with her Dismal Swamp Canal;
but this road having arrested most of the trade and carried it to Petersburg,
the country about Norfolk procured at the session of 1833-4 the passage
of an act authorizing the Portsmouth and Roanoke Railroad, which is to
terminate at the same point on the Roanoke with the Petersburg road, and
which is now under contract. The construction of the Portsmouth road
will probably carry the trade to the seaboard, to avoid the tedious navigation

of the James river, after it reaches Petersburg,—unless there should be a
road made from Richmond to Petersburg, (which is spoken of) by which
the trade coming by this route would have the advantage of the market of
both cities. We can scarcely believe that there will be trade enough to
employ profitably, both roads, as some suppose, but the travelling alone will
always enable the Petersburg road to pay something to its owners.

The Winchester Railroad, connecting the flourishing town of Winchester,
with the Baltimore and Ohio railroad at Harper's Ferry, is rapidly progressing,
and nearly completed.

The Richmond and Fredericksburg Railroad company have the law, and
will probably soon have the funds necessary for its completion, as the trade
would be considerable, and the travelling immense.

The following list exhibits a number of projected improvements, for which
the state has granted charters, and authorised a subscription of two fifths,
on the part of the literary fund, as soon as the individual subscription should
make up the other three-fifths, some of these improvements are now going
on actively, but in the most of them the stock has not as yet we believe been
taken:

                           

Name of Companies	Date of Act	Capital	Two-fifths.
Thoroughfare gap turnpike company,	13th Feb. 1833,	31000	12400
Lexington and Mountain canal turnpike co.	12th Feb. 1833,	10000	4000
Winchester and Potomac railroad co.	31st Jan. 1833,	300000	120000
Huntersville and Warm spring turnpike co.	20th Mar. 1832,	16000	6400
Thornton's gap and Warrenton turnpike co.	1st Mar. 1833,	30000	12000
Danville and Evansham turnpike co.	28th Feb. 1833,	50000	20000
Staunton and Jennings's gap turnpike co.	7th Mar. 1833,	6000	2400
Fincastle and Blue Ridge turnpike co.	26th Feb. 1833,	8000	3200
Smithfield, Charlestown and Harper's ferry turnpike company, (additional sub)	25th Feb. 1833,	10000	4000
Staunton & James river turnpike co., (additional sub)	7th Feb. 1833,	50000	20000
Rivanna and Fredericksburg turnpike co.	28th Jan. 1833,	30000	12000
Millborough and Carr's creek turnpike co.	22d Dec. 1832,	5000	2000
		$546000	$218400

Since this article was sent to press we have received the following table,
shewing the state of the Internal Improvement Fund at a much later date:

State of the Fund for Internal Improvement, 30th September, 1834.

                       

Productive.	Unproductive.		Totals.
Permanent funds, (as per statement B,)
Bank stocks and loans, and James river company's stock,	1,345,900 00		1,673,661 11
Internal improvement companies,	29,150 00	298,611 11
Disposable funds, (as per statement C,)
Bank stocks and loans,	185,373 03	50,000 00	1,159,601 43
Internal improvement companies,	230,575 00	593,653 40
	1,890,998 03	942,264 51
Total investments,			2,833,262 54
Cash in the treasury:
Belonging to the permanent funds, $30,496 30, and to the disposable funds, $15,243 53,			45,739 83
Total amount of the fund for internal improvement,			$2,879,002 37

           

The receipts into the treasury from 1st October, 1833, to 30th September, 1834, including the balance on hand the first mentioned date ($25,077 59) amounted to	338,190 64
The disbursements during the same period were,	292,450 81
Leaving in the treasury, as above stated,	$45,739 83
The probable receipts during the year ending 30th September, 1835, including the present balance on hand, will amount to	288,227 83
The probable charges and appropriations, under present engagements, will be,	353,600 27
Leaving a probable deficiency of	$65,372 44

Permanent Funds, 30th September, 1834.

                             

125½	shares in the Little river turnpike company, at par,	12,550 00
250	shares in the James river turnpike co., at par,	50,000 00
7947	shares in the Bank of Virginia, at par,	794,700 00
3381	shares in the Farmers' Bank of Virginia, at par,	338,100 00
900	shares in the Bank of the Valley, at par,	90,000 00
231	shares in the North-western bank of Virginia, at par,	23,100 00
82	shares in the Swift run gap turnpike co., at par,	4,100 00
125	shares in the Upper Appomattox co., at par,	12,500 00
	Certificates of James river co. 6 per cent. loans,	50,000 00
	Amount producing revenue,		1,375,050 00
70	shares in the Dismal swamp canal company, at par,	17,500 00
70	shares in the Chesapeake and Ohio canal company, (formerly stock of Potomac co.)	31,111 11
2500[13]	shares in the Chesapeake and Ohio canal company, (state subscription of 1833,)	250,000 00
	Amount unpxoductive,		298,611 11
	Total amount,		[14] $1,673,661 11

Disposable Funds in Stocks and Loans, 30th September, 1834.

                                                                                               

Stocks acquired by the application of the income of the fund for internal improvement, and disposable according to the 13th section of the act creating that fund, and by loans obtained under special acts of Assembly, viz.
61	shares in the Farmers' bank of Virginia,	at par,			6,100 00
100	shares in the Bank of the Valley,	at par,			10,000 00
418	shares in the Bank of Virginia,	at par,			41,800 00
500	shares in the Bank of United States, (loaned Dismal swamp canal company,)	at par,			50,000 00
34	shares in the James river company,	at par,			6,800 00
200	shares in the Staunton and James river turnpike company,	at par,			20,000 00
300	shares in the Lynehburg and Salem turnpike company,	at par,			30,000 00
140	shares in the Ashby's gap turnpike company,	at par,			14,000 00
371½	shares in the Shepherdstown and Smithfield turnpike company,	at par,			18,575 00
800	shares in the Roanoke navigation company,	at par,			80,000 00
160	shares in the Jackson's river turnpike company,	at par,			8,000 00
1600	shares in the Petersburg railroad company,	at par,			160,000 00
	Loans to the Dismal swamp canal company, at 6 per cent.				65,500 00
	United States 5 per cent. stock of 1821,	at par,			5,173 03
	Amount of productive stock,				515,948 03
	Loan to Richmond dock company, at 6 per cent.	at par,	37,500 00
375	shares in the Bank of Virginia, (loaned to Richmond dock company,)	at par,	12,500 00
				50,000 00
160	shares in the Lower Appomatox company,	at par,		16,000 00
126	shares in the Berryville turnpike company,	at par,		6,300 00
50	shares in the Cartersville bridge company,	at par,		5,000 00
186	shares in the Dismal swamp canal company,	at par,		46,500 00
160	shares in the Fairfax turnpike company,	at par,		5,400 00
643	shares in the Fallsbridge turnpike company,	at par,		32,000 00
300	shares in the Fauquier and Alexandria turnpike company,	at par,		30,000 00
672	shares in the Leesburg turnpike company,	at par,		33,600 00
80	shares in the Manchester and Petersburg turnpike company,	at par,		8,000 00
239	shares in the Middle turnpike company,	at par,		23,900 00
1000	shares in the Richmond dock company,	at par,		62,500 00
400	shares in the Snicker's gap turnpike company,	at par,		20,000 00
920	shares in the Swift run gap turnpike company,	at par,		46,000 00
48	shares in the Tye river and Blue ridge turnpike company,	at par,		2,400 00
	Amount carried over			387,800 00
	Amount brought over,			387,800 00	515,948 03
140	shares in the Monongalia navigation company,	at par,		8,180 00
69	shares in the Slate river company,	at par,	(still due, $4,692 00,)	2,208 00
200	shares in the Leesburg and Snicker's gap turnpike company,	at par,	(still due, 7,500 00,)	12,500 00
280	shares in the Lexington and Covington turnpike company,	at par,	(still due, 1,620 00,)	12,680 00
3800	shares in the Portsmouth and Roanoke railroad company,	at par,	(still due, 95,000 00,)	95,000 00
260	shares in the Rappahannock company,	at par,	(still due, 3,000 00,)	23,000 00
600	shares in the Rivanna navigation company,	at par,	(still due, 3,926 37,)	26,073 63
280	shares in the Smithfield, Charlestown and Harper's ferry turnpike company,	at par,	(still due, 1,750 00,)	12,250 00
240	shares in the Warm springs and Harrisonburg turnpike company,	at par,	(still due, 4,500 00,)	7,500 00
	shares in the Wellsburg and Washington turnpike company,	at par,	(still due, 471 56,)	6,661 77
4800	shares in the Winchester and Potomac railroad company,	at par,	(still due, 70,000 00,)	50,000 00
	Amount unproductive,		still due,		643,653 40
	Total amount of disposable funds,				$1,159,601 43

RECAPITULATION.

                         

In James river company shares,		6,800 00
Bank stocks,	57,900 00
Ditto, (loaned out,)	87,500 00
		145,400 00
United States stock,		5,173 03
Loans of money,		78,000 00
			235,373 03
Subscriptions to improvement companies,			924,228 40
As above,			$1,159,601 43
Note.—Variations since 30th September, 1833, viz:
Amount as then reported,		966,847 80
Add instalments on subscriptions paid during the year,		192,753 63
As above,		$1,159,601 43

MANUFACTURES.

Few countries possess greater advantages than Virginia, for success in
manufacturing; she has labour sufficiently cheap and abundant, inexhaustible
supplies of fuel, and almost unlimited water-power. But planting
and farming continue the favourite pursuits; her citizens seeming unwilling
to invest their capital in enterprizes new and hazardous, and for which
they have not been rendered competent by their habits and education.
There are however extremely valuable flour mills, and some nail, cotton
and other manufactories at Richmond, of which a more detailed account
will be given when we speak of that city. In speaking of Wheeling in
the N. W. part of the state, we shall give an account of her manufactories
of cotton and woollen cloths, glass, iron, nails, porter, &c. which are numerous
and valuable. The salt works on the Kanawha produce annually
about 12,00,000 bushels of salt, and the amount is only limited by the demand;
those on Holston produce from 150,000 to 200,000; and there are
others on a smaller scale which will be noticed in their proper places.

AGRICULTURE.

There is great diversity in the agriculture of the state, but it is for the
most part badly conducted. The old practice of cultivating land every
year until exhausted, and then leaving it to recover from its own resources,
still continues in many places. In others the three shift system prevails;—
that is first a crop of Indian corn, sceond, wheat, rye or oats, and third—the
year of rest as it is erroneously called, but in which in fact the stock are
permitted to glean a scanty subsistence from the spontaneous vegetation;—
after which it is again subjected to the scourging process of cultivation,
while little attention is paid to the application of manures or the artificial
grasses. This destructive system for the most part prevails from the sea
board to the head of tide-water, and on the south side of James River to the
Blue Ridge. On the north side of that river, especially towards the Potomac,
cultivation is much better; a regular system of rotation in crops is attended
to; grass seeds, generally red clover, (trifolium pratense) are sown
on the small grain; animal and vegetable manures are saved with care and
judiciously applied, gypsum is used to great extent and with very powerful
effect. In the valley district, also a good system of cultivation is pursued;
and irrigated meadows are common, and very productive. On both sides of
the Blue Ridge, maize or Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, and buck wheat
are the principal grain crops. Tobacco is the principal staple of most of
eastern Virginia, but in the Valley is cultivated only in its southern portion,—and
not at all beyond the Alleghany. The grasses common to both
regions are the red clover (trifolium pratense,) orchard grass (dactylis glomerata)
timothy (phleum pratensa,) and herds grass, (alopecurus pratensis,)
the two former are cultivated on dry, the latter on moist soils. In the
eastern and southern counties, cotton is planted to considerable extent. On
the shores of the Chesapeake barley and the castor oil bean (ricinus communis)
are cultivated; and on some of the best lands above tide-water hemp
is raised to advantage.

The Trans-Alleghany country, being exceedingly mountainous, and remote
from market is chiefly devoted to raising live-stock. No more grain
is raised than is sufficient to supply the country itself, and the travellers
and stock-drovers who pass through it; but in summer the visitors of the

mineral waters, afford a very considerable market, consuming an immense
quantity of provisions. The climate and soil are very favourable to grass,
and afford excellent pastures. The greensward and white clover, (trifolium
ripens) spring up spontaneously wherever the timber is removed or deadened,
and on rich ground are very luxuriant. The cattle are fattened generally
on fine pastures of clover and timothy mixed.

It is difficult to speak with precision of the profits of agriculture in Virginia,
in many instances it yields a bare subsistence to the cultivator, in
others a neat income of two or three per cent; but where the lands are in
good heart, careful and judicious husbandry practised, and wheat and tobacco
the principal crops, there is no doubt that with slave labour a profit
of from 6 to 8 per cent may be annually realized from capital invested; to
accomplish this however, great attention and activity are necessary on the
part of the proprietor. Lands in the Valley, in consequence of there being
fewer slaves, are more equally divided among the whites; the young population
settle more at home, instead of moving to the west—and the lands are
generally better cultivated: these circumstances cause land to sell generally
higher in that section, and the country to be more prosperous, although
running streams are less frequent and communication with market more
difficult and expensive.

In 1831 according to official returns 4459 hogshead of tobacco were delivered
from the several warehouses in the state for exportation or manufacture,
and during the year ending in June 1832, upwards of 544,000 barrels
of flour passed the various inspections. The quantity of flour inspected
however constitutes but a very uncertain index of the amount produced.
Virginia flour, especially the Richmond brands, stand very high in foreign
markets, and in South America particularly, bear a price far above all other
flour. Most of the vegetable productions found in the southern and middle
states are common also to Virginia. West of the Alleghany the sugar
maple grows in abundance. There are some excellent native grapes, the
culture of which it is presumed will claim greater attention, since the winters
have been found too severe for the foreign vine. The subject of judicious
and scientific agriculture is receiving more attention every day.
The good work is promoted by agricultural societies, and Mr. Edmund Ruffin's
valuable production, the Farmer's Register, decidedly the best work
upon the subject, published in America.

COMMERCE.

The value of imports into the state of Virginia, between October 1st 1830,
and September 30th 1831, was $488,522, and the domestic produce exported
amounted to $4,149,986,—foreign produce exported $489,—total exports
$4,150,475. This immense difference between the imports and exports is
made up by imports from sister states, the precise amount of which it is impossible
to ascertain, but there is always a balance against us to the credit
of our northern friends.

At the same time the amount of tonnage employed was as follows:—

American entered, 2,2933, foreign entered, 9,983—total entered, 32,916.

American departed, 48,719, foreign departed, 11,879—total departed, 60,598.

FISCAL CONCERNS.

We give below from the last Treasurer's Report, the state of the Finances
of the Commonwealth on the termination of the last Fiscal Year.

Amount of Receipts and Disbursements on account of the Commonwealth,
in the Fiscal Year, ending with the 30th September, 1834.—Also the
balances to the credit of the Commonwealth at the commencement of the
year.

RECEIPTS.

                                       

To balance on hand 1st day of October, 1833, as per last annual report,		$185221 69
To amounts received in fiscal year, ending with 30th September, 1834, on the following accounts, viz;
Arrears of taxes,	2229 07
Clerks of county and corporation courts,	6777 80
Clerks of superior courts,	7248 90
Clerks of appeals,	199 50
Inspectors of tobacco,	4573 32
Miscellaneous receipts,	7542 68
Militia fines,	8867 59
Notarial seals,	3086 69
Privy seals,	53 20
Penitentiary agent,	7000 00
Register of the land office,	5111 15
Revenue taxes of 1833,	318272 74
Revenue taxes of 1834,	23630 64
Redemption of land,	5496 94
Unappropriated land,	2135 19
Washington monument fund,	1109 42
To amount received in fiscal year, ending the 30th Sept. 1834,		403334 83
		$588556 52

Receipts in each quarter,—1st, $324897 88, 2d, 25937 43; 3d, 35079 39;
4th, 17420 13.

DISBURSEMENTS.

By amounts disbursed in fiscal year, ending with 30th September, 1834,
on the following accounts, viz:

                                                                             

Arsenals,	5951 70
Criminal charges,	32240 20
Contingent fund,	13828 60
Contingent expenses courts,	22625 38
Civil prosecutions,	47 15
Cavalry equipments,	1084 43
Expenses representation,	599 75
General appropriation,	24417 91
General account revenue,	28031 00
General Assembly,	90140 88
Guards in the country,	1821 99
Interest on public debt,	2372 35
Interest on Chesapeake and Ohio canal stock,	12588 91
Jerman Baker,	1 80
Lunatic hospitals,	34500 00
Militia fines,	10641 67
Military contingent,	1668 76
Manufactory of arms,	1280 00
Officers of government,	78815 24
Officers of militia,	3707 40
Officers of penitentiary,	7826 32
Penitentiary criminal charges,	4754 27
Penitentiary house expenses,	3010 96
Penitentiary building,	8319 43
Pensioners,	2308 42
Public guard,	19224 92
Public warehouses,	2842 72
Public roads,	2000 00
Revolutionary half pay claims,	12167 00
Repairs of governor's house,	937 06
Repairs of the armony,	1515 01
Sinking fund,	132 90
Slaves executed,	3222 00
Slaves transported,	11190 00
Washington monument fund,	1000 00
Warrants on account,	4121 07
By amount disbursed in fiscal year, ending 30th Sept., 1834,		472337 20
By balance on hand 1st October, 1834,		116219 32
		$588556 52

Balances at the end of each quarter, 1st, $394876 48; 2nd, $252352 75;
3d, $177568 17; 4th, $116219 32.

REVENUE.

The following table taken from the last Auditor's Report, exhibits the
amount of Taxes arising on Lots, Lands, Slaves, Horses, Carriages,
and on Licenses to Merchants, Pedlars, Keepers of Ordinaries and Houses
of Entertainment, and Exhibitors of Shows, &c. for 1834:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     

Counties.	Totals
Aecomack,	$3170 68
Albemarle,	6908 33
Alleghany,	488 24
Amelia,	2889 24
Amherst,	3116 85
Augusta,	6717 19
Bath,	848 07
Bedford,	4613 99
Berkeley,	3267 48
Botetourt,	3760 37
Brooke,	1287 74
Brunswick,	3751 56
Buckingham,	5132 87
Cabell,	635 66
Campbell,	6697 10
Caroline,	4533 33
Charles City,	1413 74
Charlotte,	4361 41
Chesterfield,	5252 08
Culpeper,	3330 94
Cumberland,	2985 88
Dinwiddie,	7042 78
Elizabeth City,	866 58
Essex,	2423 37
Fairfax,	2996 18
Fauquier,	7344 28
Fayette,	215 94
Floyd,	326 31
Fluvanna,	2132 60
Franklin,	2194 36
Frederick,	9119 67
Giles,	553 23
Gloucester,	2172 50
Goochland,	3407 87
Grayson,	468 97
Greenbrier,	1671 97
Greensville,	1983 27
Halifax,	6178 43
Hampshire,	2411 92
Hanover,	4689 40
Hardy,	2609 49
Harrison,	1708 27
Henrico,	14106 68
Henry,	1201 96
Isle of Wight,	$1876 54
Jackson,	227 22
James City,	670 28
Jefferson,	4848 08
Kanawha,	1585 13
King George,	1760 75
King William,	2563 03
King and Queen,	2296 31
Lancaster,	989 79
Lee,	650 61
Lewis,	689 91
Logan,	176 84
Loudoun,	8817 32
Louisa,	3840 38
Lunenburg,	2452 17
Madison,	2211 51
Mason,	799 17
Matthews,	950 07
Mecklenburg,	5104 96
Middlesex,	806 90
Monongalia,	1392 52
Monroe,	1203 65
Montgomery,	1289 69
Morgan,	536 84
Nansemond,	2064 18
Nelson,	2787 08
New Kent,	1257 88
Nicholas,	303 36
Norfolk County,	3728 33
Norfolk Borough,	5723 80
Northampton,	1982 74
Northumberland,	1242 08
Nottoway,	2580 87
Ohio,	2819 25
Orange,	3852 50
Page,	1341 42
Patrick,	849 31
Pendleton,	1090 98
Pittsylvania,	5265 82
Pocahontas,	373 29
Powhatan,	2792 87
Preston,	492 27
Princess Anne,	1907 50
Prince Edward,	3814 89
Prince George,	1941 49
Prince William,	$2668 48
Randolph,	639 47
Rappahannock,	1898 13
Richmond,	1177 08
Rockbridge,	3195 27
Rockingham,	4928 04
Russell,	669 51
Scott,	524 63
Shenandoah,	3534 16
Southampton,	3096 28
Spottsylvania,	4103 58
Stafford,	2025 81
Surry,	$1257 49
Sussex,	2711 55
Smyth,	989 04
Tazewell,	727 55
Tyler, (no returns,)
Warwick,	350 74
Washington,	2286 10
Westmoreland,	1560 26
Williamsburg,	382 16
Wood,	1190 11
Wythe,	1901 42
York,	823 45
Total amount of taxes included in above table,	$291580 67

                               

Tax on licenses to merchants, brokers, jewellers and auctioneers,	68346 66
Tax on licenses to pedlars,	6455 42
Tax on licenses to ordinary keepers,	16636 41
Tax on licenses to houses of private entertainment,	3305 20
Tax on licenses to venders of lottery tickets,	4129 69
Tax on licenses to shows,	2310 00
		101283 38
		392864 05
Deduct as the estimated amount of insolvents, overcharges, unascertained lands, and lands purchased for the commonwealth,		3000 00
		389864 05
Deduct sheriffs' commissions of 5 per cent.	19493 20
Deduct sheriffs' commissions of 2½ per cent. for prompt payment,	6871 09
		26364 29
		363499 76
Add estimated nett amount from the county of Tyler,		580 00
		$364079 76

BANKS.

State of the Bank of the Valley, including its Officers of Discount and
Deposite, on the 2d day of December, 1833.

                           

Specie,	$133,257 33
Notes of other banks,	127,398 94
Due from other banks,	222,823 50
Bills and notes discounted,	1,229,233 75
Bond account,	1,036 88
Real estate,	80,445 91
	$1,794,196 31
Capital stock,	690,000 00
Notes in circulation,	875,185 00
Due to other banks,	12,068 27
Discount,	31,461 52
Contingent fund,	34,738 17
Deposite money,	150,743 35
	$1,794,196 31

State of the North-western Bank of Virginia, at Wheeling, November
28th, 1833.

                                               

Capital stock Branch at Wellsburg,			$50,000 00
Bills discounted,	bad 1,100 00		366,306 74
	in suit 19,575 62
Real Estate,			2,820 00
Due by Commonwealth of Virginia,			770 00
Due by other banks,			18,782 06
Due by expense account,			539 25
Specie on hand,			36,674 00
Office notes,			1,530 00
Notes of other banks,			89,268 00
Bank notes stolen,		68,456 00
Bank notes recovered,		35,882 00
		32,574 00
Specie stolen,		840 00	33,414 00
			$600,104 05
Capital stock,			624,500 00
Bills in circulation,			179,450 00
Profit and loss,			9,040 14
Discount received and premiums,			8,886 65
Due to Union Bank of Maryland, loan,			20,000 00
Due to S. Jacob, cashier at Wellsburg,			377 14
Due to other banks,			50,900 39
Deposites,			66,949 73
			600,104 05

State of the North-western Bank of Virginia, Wellsburg Branch, November
30th, 1833.

                           

Bills discounted, (no bad or doubtful debts)	94,231 29
Due by other banks,	12,539 84
Due by John List, Cashier,	287 72
Due by expense account,	220 68
Specie on hand	19,877 52
Notes of other banks,	30,628 00
	$157,785 05
Capital stock,	50,000 00
Bills in circulation,	86,920 00
Profit and loss,	1,372 38
Discounts received and premiums,	2,183 33
Due to other banks,	5,429 23
Due to depositors,	11,880 11
	$157,785 07

Detailed statement of the Bank of Virginia, and its several Branches,
January 1st, 1834.

                                                                                                                                                               

[15] Debt outstanding:
Richmond,	2,498,175 44
Norfolk,	726,273 81
Petersburg,	1,037,956 94
Fredericksburg,	648,335 12
Lynchburg,	681,046 79
Danville,	340,529 22
Charleston,	268,085 13
	$6,200,402 45
Specie:
Richmond	179,076 16
Norfolk,	16,943 83
Petersburg,	86,750 15
Fredericksburg,	45,363 60
Lynchburg,	16,366 84
Danville,	55,561 85
Charleston,	35,863 40
	$435,925 83
Notes of other banks:
Richmond,	24,155 00
Norfolk,	33,745 00
Petersburg,	3,615 00
Fredericksburg,	34,541 15
Lynchburg,	13,323 39
Danville,	10,745 00
Charleston,	10,630 00
	$130,754 54
Charleston,	19,336 46
Balances due from other banks,
Fredericksburg,	90,029 06
	$109,365 52
Foreign bills of exchange:
Richmond,	145,766 52
Petersburg,	29,716 34
Fredericksburg,	1,587 23
	$177,070 09
Stock of James River:
Company 6 per cent stock,	100,000 00
Real estate:
Richmond,	114,465 89
Norfolk,	64,783 63
Petersburg,	78,658 52
Fredericksburg,	29,155 44
Lynchburg,	25,843 77
	312,907 25
Total,	$7,466,425 68
Capital stock:	2,740,000 00
Notes in circulation:
Richmond,	821,000 00
Norfolk,	186,140 00
Petersburg,	585,065 00
Fredericksburg,	375,360 00
Lynchburg,	435,240 00
Danville,	310,065 00
Charleston,	256,890 00
	$2,969,760 00
Balance due to other banks:
Richmond,	106,308 78
Norfolk,	15,774 24
Petersburg,	87,774 87
Lynchburg,	3,686 38
Danville,	900 14
	$214,444 41
Balance the treasurer U. States:
Richmond	15,759 94
Norfolk,	9,000 00
Petersburg,	25,669 26
Fredericksburg,	20 92
Lynchburg,	83 21
	$50,553 39
Deposite money:
Richmond,	999,070 42
Norfolk,	151,356 96
Petersburg,	95,016 33
Fredericksburg,	153,492 57
Lynchburg,	56,447 78
Danville,	27,129 22
Charleston,	9,174 60
	$1,491,687 88
Total,	7,466,425 68

                 

	Capital Stock.	Nett profits for the year.	Rate of per cent.
At Richmond,	1,000,000	171,715 49[16]	17	17	15	100
At Norfolk,	440,000	16,728 81	3	80
At Petersburg,	450,000	42,750 29	9	50
At Fredericksburg,	300,000	28,640 00	9	54⅔
At Lynchburg,	300,000	32,047 87	10	68⅓
At Danville,	150,000	15,687 17	10	46
At Charleston,	100,000	11,349 92	11	35
	$2,740,000	318,919 55	making an ag'ate of 11 64.

State of the Farmers' Bank of Virginia, and its several Branches, 1st
January, 1834.

                                                                                                 

Debt outstanding:
Richmond,	1,572,546 20
Norfolk,	692,482 78
Petersburg,	642,170 54
Fredericksburg,	562,310 61
Lynchburg,	576,851 93
Winchester,	378,614 26
Danville,	56,360 00
	$4,471,336 32
Specie:
Richmond,	204,831 20
Norfolk,	28,397 61
Petersburg,	40,139 70
Fredericksburg,	41,779 30
Lynchburg,	36,917 00
Winchester,	22,486 40
Danville,	717 70
	$375,268 91
Foreign Notes:
Richmond,	50,636 16
Norfolk,	37,204 52
Petersburg,	4,663 66
Fredericksburg,	4,365 00
Lynchburg,	9,205 00
Winchester,	22,239 97
Danville,	615 00
	$128,929 31
Bank stock:
Richmond,	23,715 50
Fredericksburg,	10,876 00
	$34,591 50
Real Estate:
Richmond,	91,918 09
Norfolk,	38,488 67
Petersburg,	35,791 48
Fredericksburg,	17,421 65
Lynchburg,	22,993 58
Winchester,	24,490 18
	$231,043 65
	$5,241,169 69
Stock:	2,000,000 00
Notes in circulation:
Richmond,	552,688 00
Norfolk,	155,600 00
Petersburg,	376,635 00
Fredericksburg,	257,325 00
Lynchburg,	397,640 00
Winchester,	147,720 00
	$1,887,608 00

                                         

Due to other banks:
	Richmond,	126,958 76
	Norfolk,	29,455 94
66,998 96	Petersburg,
	Fred'ksburg,	33,387 80
5,116 05	Lynchburg,
	Winchester,	11,625 31
1,124 65	Danville,
73,239 66		201,427 81
		73,239 66
		128,188 15
Deposite money:
Richmond,		811,080 29
Norfolk,		91,161 43
Petersburg,		137,383 33
Fredericksburg,		75,746 22
Lynchburg,		91,704 47
Winchester,		18,036 14
Danville,		261 66
		1,225,373 54
	Total	$5,241,169 69

Statement of bad and doubtful debts due the Farmers' Bank of Virginia,
on the 1st January, 1834, and also the contingent fund:

                           

Bad debt last year,		178,833 45
Doubtful,		155,231 26
		$334,064 71
Contingent fund,	105,015 14
Profit in stock,	53,038 50	158,053 64
Deficiency,		176,011 07
Bad debt as above,		178,833 45
Extinguished during the year,		46,507 53
		132,325 93
Doubtful as above,		155,231 26
		287,556 18
Contingent fund, including January, 1834,	159,488 39
Profit on 502 shares of stock, valued at par,	15,608 50	175,096 89
Total bad and doubtful debt provided for,		$112,460 30

From which should be deducted whatever may be received, from debts
reported doubtful, and any gain by loss of notes in circulation.

Amount of debts contracted at the Farmers' Bank of Virginia and its
Branches, during the year 1833, and which remained unpaid on 1st January,
1834.

           

Bank at Richmond,	965,387 13
Bank at Fredericksburg,	496,180 23
Bank at Petersburg,	357,122 26
Bank at Norfolk,	176,163 62
Bank at Winchester,	96,047 00
	$2,090,900 24

State of the Farmers' Bank of Virginia, including the branches 1st
January, 1834.

           

Debts outstanding,	4,471,336 32
Specie,	375,268 91
Foreign Notes,	128,929 31
Bank Stock,	34,591 50
Real Estate,	231,043 65
	$5,241,169 69

               

Profits of Richmond,	13 58 per cent.
Norfolk,	3 18 per cent.
Petersburg,	11 08 per cent.
Fredericksburg,	12 41 per cent.
Winchester,	6 71 per cent.
Danville,	3 97 per cent.
Aggregate profits,	1 07 per cent.
Contingent fund,	159,488 39

         

Stock,	2,000,000 00
Notes in circulation,	1,817,608 00
Due to other banks,	128,188 15
Deposite money,	1,225,373 54
	$5,241,169 69

   

In this estimate, the profits on bank stock purchased some years ago, and sold in 1833, are not included, not belonging to the usual business estimated—but being actually received, add that to the current profits, and the profits of Richmond, are	21 60 pr. ct.
In this estimate, the profits on bank stock purchased some years ago, and sold in 1833, are not included, not belonging to the usual business estimated—but being actually received, add that to the current profits, and the profits of Norfolk,	4 10 pr. ct.