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3. ANATOMY OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS.

Having now considered the functions and something of the structure of the principal organs of reproduction, we may obtain a more definite idea of the relation of the several organs of each class by a connected review of the anatomy of the parts.

Male Organs. — As previously stated, the external organs of generation in the male are the penis and the testicles, the latter being contained in a pouch, called the scrotum. The penis is the organ of urination as well as of copulation. Its structure is cellular, and it contains a vast number of minute coils of blood-vessels, which become turgid with blood under the influence of sexual excitement, producing distention and erection of the organ. A canal passes through its entire length, called the urethra, which conveys both the urine and the seminal fluid. The organ is protected by a loose covering of integument, which folds over the end. This fold is called the foreskin, or prepuce.

The fluid formed by each testicle is conveyed by the vas deferens, a curved tube about two feet in length, to the base of the bladder. Here the vas deferens joins with another duct, which communicates with an elongated pouch, the vesicula seminalis, lying close to the under side of the bladder. The single tube thus formed, the ejaculatory duct, conveys the seminal fluid to the urethra, from which it is discharged.

As the production of seminal fluid is more or less constant in man and some animals, while its discharge is

intermittent, the vesiculæ seminales serve as reservoirs for the fluid, preserving it until required, or allowing it to undergo absorption. Some claim that the zoosperms are matured in these organs. They always contain seminal fluid after the age of puberty. During coition, their contents are forcibly expelled by a spasmodic contraction of the muscles which surround them and the ducts leading from them.

The Prostate Gland. — Surrounding the ejaculatory ducts and their openings into the urethra at the base of the bladder, is the prostate gland, which produces a peculiar secretion that forms a considerable portion of the seminal fluid, being mingled with the secretion of the testes during its ejaculation. This gland sometimes becomes the seat of rather serious disease. In old age, it usually becomes slightly indurated, and often to such an extent as to seriously affect the health and comfort of the individual by interference with urination and by occasioning pain.

Anterior to this organ, in the urethra, is a curious little pouch, the utriculus, which corresponds to the vagina and uterus in the female. Just in front of the prostate gland are two small bodies, known as Cowper's glands. They secrete a fluid which combines with the seminal secretion.

Female Organs. — The ovaries, uterus or womb, Fallopian tubes, and vagina have already been described in part. The external organs of the female are included in the term vulva, or pudenda. The most superficial parts are the labia, two thick folds of integument. Just within these two are thinner folds, the labia minora, or nymphæ. These, together with the clitoris, situated just

above, are extremely sensitive organs, being the chief seat of sexual sense in the female. At the lower part is the opening to the vagina, which in the virgin is usually partially guarded by a thin membrane, the hymen. This is not always a reliable test of virginity, however, as commonly regarded, since it may be destroyed by disease or accident, and may exist even after the occurrence of pregnancy.

The vagina extends from the vulva to the lower end of the uterus, which it incloses, passing between the bladder and the rectum. The lower extremity of the uterus presents a small opening, which leads into its interior. Upon either side, at its upper and larger end, is a minute opening, the mouth of the Fallopian tube. The latter organs extend from the uterus outward nearly to the ovaries, toward which they present a number of small filaments, one of which is in contact with each ovary. These filaments, together with the interior of the tubes, are covered with a peculiar kind of cells, upon which are minute cilia, or hairs, in constant motion. Very curiously, they all move in the same direction, toward the cavity of the uterus. When an ovum escapes from the ovary in connection with menstruation, it is by these delicate hairs propelled along a filament of tissue to the Fallopian tube, and thence by the same means is conveyed to the uterus. It may come in contact with the zoosperms at any point between the ovary and the lower orifice of the uterus, and thus undergo fecundation.

Puberty. — For a certain period after birth, the sexual organs remain in a partially developed condition. This period varies in duration with different animals, in

some cases being very brief, in others, comprising several years. Upon the attainment of a certain age, the individual becomes sexually perfect, and is then capable of the generative act. This period is called puberty.

In man, puberty commonly occurs between the ages of ten and fifteen years, varying considerably in different climates. In this country, and in other countries of about the same latitude, puberty usually occurs at the age of fourteen or fourteen and one-half years in females, and a few months later in males. In cooler climates, as in Norway and Siberia, the change is delayed to the age of eighteen or nineteen years. In tropical climates it is hastened, occurring as early as nine or ten years. In warm climates it is no uncommon thing for a girl to be a mother at twelve; and it is stated that one of the wives of Mahomet was a mother at ten.

Other causes besides climate tend to hasten the occurrence of this change, as habits, temperament, constitutional tendency, education, and idiosyncrasy.

Causes which Delay Puberty. — Habits of vigorous physical exercise tend to delay puberty. For this reason, together with others, country boys and girls generally mature later than those living in the city by several months, and even a year or two. Anything that tends to excite the emotions, hastens puberty. The excitements of city life, parties, balls, theaters, even the competition of students in school, and the various causes of excitement to the nervous system which occur in city life, have a tendency to hasten the occurrence of the change which awakens the sexual activities of the system into life. Hence, these influences cannot but be considered prejudicial to the best interests of the individual, men-

tally, morally, and physically, since it is in every way desirable that a change which arouses the passions and gives to them greater intensity, should be delayed rather than hastened.

Influence of Diet on Puberty. — The dietary has a not unimportant influence in this respect. Stimulating foods, such as pepper, vinegar, mustard, spices, and condiments generally, together with tea and coffee, and an excess of animal food, have a clearly appreciable influence in inducing the premature occurrence of puberty. On this account, if on no other, should these articles be prohibited to children and youth, or used very sparingly. Those who advocate the large use of meat by children and youth, have not studied this matter closely in all its bearings. While it is true that children and growing youth require an abundance of the nitrogenous elements of food which are found abundantly in beefsteak, mutton, fish, and other varieties of animal food, it is also true that in taking these articles of food, they take, along with the nutrient elements, properties of a stimulating character, which exert a decidedly detrimental influence upon the susceptible systems of children and youth. At the same time, it is possible to obtain the same desirable nitrogenous elements in oatmeal, unbolted wheat flour, peas, beans, and other vegetable productions, which are wholly free from injurious properties. We are positive, from numerous observations on this subject, that a cool, unstimulating vegetable or farinaceous diet would deter the development of the sexual organism for several months, and perhaps for a year or two.

While it might not be in all cases desirable to do this, it would at least be wise to adopt such measures in

cases in which the child is unavoidably exposed to influences which have a tendency to hasten the change.

A Caution. — It is important to add in this connection a word of caution against the adoption of a dietary too abstemious in character. It is necessary that an abundance of good, wholesome food, rich in the elements of nutrition, should be taken regularly. There is no doubt that many young ladies have induced conditions of serious disease by actual starvation of the system. A young woman who attempts to live on strong tea or coffee, fine-flour bread, and sweet cake, is as certainly starving herself as though she were purposely attempting to commit suicide by starvation, and with as much certainty of the same result.

Brunettes Precocious. — It has been observed that in girls the occurrence of puberty is earlier in brunettes than in blondes; and in general, it makes its appearance earlier in persons of a nervous or nervo-bilious temperament than in persons of a lymphatic temperament or phlegmatic nature.

Certain nationalities and families are marked by the earlier occurrence of puberty than others. In Jews, the change is commonly a year or two in advance of other nationalities in this country. It also occurs somewhat sooner in negroes or creoles than in white persons, the African race seeming to retain something of the precocity occasioned by the tropical influence of its native clime.

Remarkable Precocity. — Cases occasionally occur in which puberty makes its appearance at the age of three or four years. Indeed, a case has been reported in this country in which a female child possessed at birth all

the characteristics which are usually developed at puberty. In this case the regular periodical changes began at birth.

Premature Development Occasions Early Decay. — A fact which is of too great importance to be allowed to pass unnoticed, is that whatever occasions early or premature sexual development, also occasions premature decay. Females in whom puberty occurs at the age of ten or twelve, by the time their age is doubled, are shriveled and wrinkled with age. At the time when they should be in their prime of health and beauty, they are prematurely old and broken. Those women who mature late, retain their beauty and their strength many years after their precocious sisters have become old, decrepit, and broken down. Thus, the matrons of thirty and forty years in colder climates are much more attractive in appearance than the maidens of sixteen; while quite the reverse is true in this and other countries where sexual development is unduly hastened.

Early Puberty a Cause for Anxiety. — The unnaturally early appearance of puberty is a just cause for apprehension, since it usually indicates all inherent weakness of the constitution. When there are reasons for fearing its occurrence, active measures should be taken to occasion delay if possible. We call especial attention to this point, since there are many who erroneously suppose the early occurrence of puberty to be a sign of superior vigor.

Changes which Occur at Puberty. — The changes which occur in the two sexes at this period have been thus described: —

"In both sexes, hair grows on the skin covering the

symphysis pubis, around the sexual organs, and in the axillæ (armpits). In man, the chest and shoulders broaden, the larynx enlarges, and the voice becomes lower in pitch from the elongation of the vocal cords; hair grows upon the chin, upper lip, and cheeks, and often exists upon the general surface of the body more abundantly than in woman." The sexual organs undergo enlargement, and are more frequently excited. The testicles first begin the secretion of the seminal fluid.

"In woman, the pelvis and abdomen enlarge, but the whole frame remains more slender, the muscles and joints less prominent, the limbs more rounded and tapering [than in the male]. Locally, both external and internal organs undergo a considerable and rapid enlargement. The mammæ enlarge, the ovarian vesicles become dilated, and there is established a periodical discharge of one or more ova, accompanied, in most cases, by a sanguineous fluid from the cavity of the uterus."

These changes, so varied and extraordinary, often occur within a very short space of time; and as they are liable to serious derangement, especially in the female, great care should be taken to secure for the individual the most favorable conditions until they are successfully effected. It is, however, a fact deserving of mention, that many of the ills which are developed at this particular period are quite as much the result of previous indiscretions and mismanagements as of any immediate cause. A few suggestions with regard to the proper treatment of individuals at this age may be in place: —

1. Do not allow the boy or girl to be overworked,

either mentally or physically. Great and important changes are occurring within the body, and nature should not be overtaxed.

2. Keep the mind occupied. While excessive labor should be avoided, idleness should be as carefully shunned. Some light, useful employment or harmless amusement — better some kind of work — should keep the mind fully occupied with wholesome subjects.

3. Abundant exercise out-of-doors is essential for both sexes. Sunshine and fresh air are as necessary to the development of a human being as for the expanding of a flower bud.

4. Watch carefully the associations of the youth. This should be done at all times, but especially just at the critical period in question, when the general physical disturbances occurring in the system react upon the mind, and make it peculiarly susceptible to influences of every sort, especially those of an evil character.

5. None too much care can be exercised at this important epoch of human life, provided it is properly applied; but nothing could be more disastrous in its consequences than a weak solicitude which panders to every whim and gratifies every perverted appetite. Such care is a fatal error.

Menstruation. — The functional changes which occur in the female are much more marked than those of the male. As already intimated, the periodical development and discharge of an ovum by the female, which occurs after puberty, is accompanied by the discharge of a bloody fluid, which is known as the flowers, menses, or catamenia. The accompanying symptoms together are termed the process of menstruation, or being unwell. This

usually occurs, in the human female, once in about four weeks. In special cases, the interval may be a week less or a week longer; or the variation may be even greater. Dalton describes the process as follows: —

"When the expected period is about to come on, the female is affected by a certain degree of discomfort and lassitude, a sense of weight in the pelvis, and more or less disinclination to society. These symptoms are in some cases slightly pronounced, in others more troublesome. An unusual discharge of vaginal mucus then begins to take place, which soon becomes yellowish or rusty brown in color, from the admixture of a certain proportion of blood; and by the second or third day, the discharge has the appearance of nearly pure blood. The unpleasant sensations which were at first manifest, then usually subside; and the discharge, after continuing for a certain period, begins to grow more scanty. Its color changes from a pure red to a brownish or rusty tinge, until it finally disappears altogether, and the female returns to her ordinary condition."

The menstrual function continues active from puberty to about the forty-fifth year, or during the period of fertility. When it finally disappears, the woman is no longer capable of bearing children. The time of disappearance is termed the "change of life," or menopause. Exceptional cases occur in which this period is greatly hastened, arriving as early as the thirty-fifth year, or even earlier. Instances have also been observed in which menstruation continued as late as the sixtieth year, and even later; but such cases are very rare; and if procreation occurs, the progeny is feeble and senile.

With rare exceptions, the function is suspended

during pregnancy, and usually, also, during the period of nursing.

Nature of Menstruation. — There has been a great amount of speculation concerning the cause and nature of the menstrual process. No entirely satisfactory conclusions have been reached, however, except that it is usually accompanied by the maturation and expulsion from the ovary of an ovum, which is termed ovulation. But menstruation may occur without ovulation, and vice versa.

Menstruation is not peculiar to the human female, being represented in the higher animals by what is familiarly termed "the rut." This is not usually a bloody discharge, however, as in the human female, though such a discharge has been observed in the monkey.

It has been quite satisfactorily settled that the discharge of the ovum from the ovary generally takes place about the time of the cessation of the flow. Immediately after the discharge, the sexual desires of the female are more intense than at other times. This fact is particularly manifest in lower animals. The following remark by Prof. Dalton is especially significant to those who care to appreciate its bearing: —

"It is a remarkable fact, in this connection, that the female of these [domestic] animals will allow the approaches of the male only during and immediately after the cestrual period [rut]; that is, just when the egg is recently discharged, and ready for impregnation. At other times, when sexual intercourse would be necessarily fruitless, the instinct of the animal leads her to avoid it; and the concourse of the sexes is accordingly made to correspond in time with the maturity of the egg and its aptitude for fecundation."

The amount of fluid lost during the menstrual flow varies greatly with different individuals. It is estimated at from three ounces to half a pint. In cases of deranged function, it may be much greater than this. It is not all blood, however, a considerable portion being mucus. It is rather difficult to understand why the discharge of so considerable a quantity of blood is required. There is no benefit derived from a very copious discharge, as some suppose. Facts seem to indicate that in general, those enjoy the best health who lose but small quantities of blood in this manner.

Some recent observations respecting the nature of menstruation, have unsettled the old theories respecting this function, and given rise to much discussion. The most plausible theory, and one which differs very materially from the old, is that of Lœwenthal. The views promulgated by this author are of so much interest that we take this opportunity of presenting them at some length in the following translation recently published in the Detroit Lancet: —

1. Menstruation recurs periodically. It is marked by an individual periodicity. Any deviation from the ordinary rhythm (due to strong psychical influences, changes of the mode of life, etc.) will, in a short time after removal of the cause, return to the special normal periodicity.

2. The kind and duration of the flow is different in different women.

3 Anatomical and physiological changes take place in the mucous membrane of the uterus as follows: —

(a.) There is a thickening of the mucous membrane, which commences about ten days before the menstrua-

tion, and is analogous to decidual formation in the early stages of pregnancy.

(b.) During the flow, disintegration of the outer layer of the mucous membrane takes place, which is completed in ten days.

(c.) The swelling of the mucous membrane at first takes place especially in the outer layer, and affects the lymph vessels, which are dilated, and not the blood-vessels; the latter only enlarge at a later period, that is, just before the flow commences. Congestion does not cause the thickening of the mucous membrane.

(d.) The increase in the thickness of the mucous membrane is confined to the body of the uterus; the cervix is not involved.

(e.) The other sexual organs, and the system in general, are influenced more or less by the menstrual process. The ovaries (one or the other) increase in size, due to a ripe Graafian follicle ready to burst. This does not take place during the time that the membrane swells, but at the time of the flow of blood.

During the menstrual process we have infiltration and swelling for ten days, then hemorrhage for four to five days, and finally return to the normal, restitutio ad integrum, for four to five days, the whole process occupying about twenty days. The infiltration and swelling must, under all circumstances, be looked upon as the primary impulse, as the flow of blood can only take place after the former has existed for some time.

As the different theories do not explain the many phenomena of menstruation, especially the two factors, — that the congestion and hemorrhage cause the rupture of a Graafian follicle, or that the latter causes the hemor-

rhage, — we must conclude that a third factor plays an important part, and that this third factor is the product of ovulation, — the unimpregnated ovule.

The whole menstrual process might be considered as follows: —

1. The Graafian follicle ruptures, and the ovule passes down into the uterus.

2. In the first appropriate fold of the uterine mucous membrans (generally near the mouth of the tube), the ovule is imbedded, and causes by its presence a swelling of the mucous membrane; that is, the menstrual decidua.

3. If the ovule becomes impregnated, the menstrual decidua is developed into the true decidua of pregnancy.

4. If in a certain time, which represents its vitality, the ovule is not impregnated, it dies, and thus causes congestion and disintegration of the menstrual decidua; that is, the menstrual flow.

5. The congestion reacts on the cause of its origin, the ovaries, and brings about a rupture of a follicle, which, in the meantime, has ripened. (This does not exclude any other cause which might bring about menstrual congestion, as a cause of a ruptured follicle.)

This view not only explains all contradiction, but also solves many doubtful questions in a satisfactory manner.

The basis of this view is: —

1. That the unimpregnated ovule becomes imbedded.

2. That after this imbedding, and only then, it has a certain limited individual life power.

Many objections might be urged against this theory. Some authorities claim that impregnation always takes

place at the ovary, and that extra-uterine pregnancy tends to prove this; but as extra-uterine pregnancy occurs once in ten thousand cases, the chances are ten thousand times greater that impregnation does take place in the uterus. Gerbe-Coste have claimed that the ovule of a rabbit is covered with an albuminous layer as soon as it leaves the Fallopian tubes, and that this layer prevents the passage through it of spermatozoa; consequently, impregnation can take place only in the tubes. This layer may disappear later, however, as we know that nature, instead of preventing impregnation by such means, always furnishes aids to facilitate it. Nor can we assume that a human being can be compared to the lower animals; but that a fundamental difference exists.

The lower animals have one or two rutting seasons a year, and their power to multiply is limited to this time. The human species is always ready to impregnate or become impregnated. The rutting season of animals depends on the duration of pregnancy in every species, and is always at such a time that the birth of the young takes place when there is an abundance of food. With man this is not necessary. He is independent of seasons. Male and female animals are in heat at the same time, the ovule and the spermatozoa are supplied at the same time; no social obstacles exist; the female, ready for impregnation, is impregnated at the time. In the human species, man certainly has no period of heat, and the ripe ovule is not brought immediately in contact with spermatozoa; if the power to propagate the species is not to be reduced to a minimum, it is necessary that one or the other components of reproduction must have a longer life power, so that impregnation can take place at any time.

The female element has the undoubted advantage as it furnishes the egg, the material to build up an embryo; while the semen is only a secondary factor, which merely starts the development of the ovule. Everything tends to prove that the ovule which is not immediately impregnated, must have an equal, if not a longer life power than the semen which is deposited in the genital parts. The two components of the future embryo not being present at the same time, and impregnation being possible at all times, it follows that one must wait for the other. The ovule being the larger, and placed in a soil which it needs for its future growth, is therefore probably the component part which waits for the other, as the spermatozoa are soon destroyed when removed from the spermatic canal. If the ovule has to wait for the spermatozoa, it can only do so in the uterus, as it is forced there, not having power to move of its own accord, whether impregnated before reaching the uterus or not.

The following conditions are necessary for the embedding of the ovule and the next menstrual process: —

1. The ovule must be perfectly ripe.

2. It must pass from the follicle at a time when it has the best chance to soon reach the uterus through the Fallopian tubes during menstruation.

3. The place of imbedding must be ready, and prepared to form the menstrual decidua.

If these conditions are not present, the next menstruation will be abnormal. To this category belongs amenorrhœa.

1. No ripe ovule is developed, or it is of diminished vitality, and consequently is not imbedded; or if imbedded, after a few hours or days it dies, and a real men-

strual decidua has not been developed; consequently no hemorrhage takes place. If during the short time the ovule is in the uterus, spermatozoa should enter, pregnancy might take place, which explains those rare cases of pregnancy occurring during amenorrhœa. During lactation, the absence of or weak ovules would explain the absence of menstruation, and the occasional occurrence of pregnancy at this time.

2. If during menstruation, from some cause no ripe ovule is present, none can be imbedded, no menstrual decidua is formed, and the next menstrual does not appear. The menstrual congestion which aids the development of the Graafian follicle and ripening of the ovule being absent, the ovules are weak, do not become imbedded, or if they do, die in a short time. The amenorrhœa continues until a strong, healthy ovule is again imbedded, and then dies, causing the menstruation. This also explains why pregnancy can occur after long-continued amenorrhœa.

3. If the healthy ovule is formed, and passes into the uterus, the latter does not allow its imbedding, on account of severe endometritis, profuse secretion, etc. The physiological amenorrhœa during pregnancy can be readily explained in the same manner, the uterus is occupied; and if during persistent development of ovules, one should be really imbedded, and become impregnated, we would have a case of twin pregnancy, where one fetus is fully developed and the other imperfectly; or a case where one child is born a few weeks or months after the other. In some women, also, there is no tendency to hemorrhage; they have ovulation, but no real menstruation; they have, instead, a recurring leucorrhœa, so-called "white menstruation."

Cases occur where two or more causes are present to prevent imbedding of an ovule, and to cause amenorrhœa.

Anomalies of menstruation, such as profuse and irregularly recurring hemorrhages, can be readily explained, as they have no connection with menstruation at all, in fact, often occurring during amenorrhœa, and are due to other diseases (tumors, ulcers, displacements, etc.).

The following points also go to prove the correctness of the view that the ovule becomes imbedded, etc.: —

Many observers have recorded that young girls, some four weeks before the first appearance of menstruation, have all the nervous symptoms which are found later with every recurring menstruation. A ripe follicle has burst, the ovule becomes imbedded, and in four weeks causes the first menstruation.

Immediately after childbirth, ovulation and imbedding may take place, as is proven by the occurrence of pregnancy a few weeks after childbirth, and before the recurrence of menstruation. The irregularity of menstruation before the climacteric period, only proves the theory, as the ovule does not have the same extrafollicular vital power, and the thickening of the albuginea often prevents rupture of a Graafian follicle.

The experiments of Lawson Tait have caused him to conclude that the anticipated climacteric period always occurs with certainty when both tubes are removed. This goes to prove the correctness of the Lœwenthal theory, as no ovule can get into the uterus, even if a third ovary exist, or some ovarian stroma remains behind, and consequently menstruation cannot occur.

The well-founded fact that impregation is most liable

to occur immediately after menstruation, also tends to prove the correctness of the theory, as the further removed from menstruation, the less vital power is possessed by the ovule, and pregnancy is not so liable to occur.

The theory of Lœwenthal leads him to conclude that menstruation is not physiological, but pathological, and not necessary to health; that menstrual blood is normal blood, and does not contain any poisonous substance that must be eliminated from the system; that in amenorrhœa, emmenagogues are useless or harmful, as some constitutional disease (chlorosis, hysteria, etc.) causes amenorrhœa; but the latter causes no disease itself. Amenorrhœa simply indicates some disease of the system, and should be looked upon as a powerful aid to re-invigorate the body, not be fought as a foe. A woman is not healthy because she menstruates, but in spite of it. He does not want to stop all women from menstruating, but simply suggests a reform in the treatment of the disorders of menstruation. He reports cases of chronic invalids with pain and nervous disturbances after menstruation, which had been subjected to all kinds of treatment without benefit, until he lessened menstruation by quiet and hot water injections, with wonderful result. The cases all recovered, although he checked menstruation so much that only two drachms of blood were lost.

The object is to diminish the hemorrhage as much as possible; it cannot be entirely stopped, as the decay of the menstrual decidua will always cause some bleeding, but this should be limited to a discharge of bloody

The above quotation embodies views which are certainly of great interest from a variety of standpoints, and it is to be hoped that they may be confirmed by further observations.

Extra-Uterine Pregnancy. — Sometimes the ovum becomes fecundated before reaching the uterus, and instead of passing onward into that organ as usual, remains in its position in the Fallopian tube or even on the surface of the ovary. Occasionally an ovum falls into the cavity of the abdomen instead of passing into the tube. Even in this situation it may be fecundated. Impregnated ova thus left in abnormal positions, undergo a greater or less degree of development. They commonly result in the death of the mother.

Twins. — The human female usually matures but one ovum at each menstrual period, the two ovaries acting alternately. Occasionally two ova are matured at once. If fecundation occurs, the result will be a development of two embryos at the same time. In rare cases, three or even four ova are matured at once, and by fecundation, produce a corresponding number of embryos. As many as five children have been born alive at one birth, but have not lived more than a few minutes.

The occurrence of multiple pregnancies may be explained by the supposition that ova matured subsequent to the first fecundation are also fecundated.

In lower animals, the uterus is often divided into two long segments, which afford room for the development of a number of young at once. Some ancient writers make most absurd statements with regard to the fecundity of women. One declares that the simultaneous birth of seven or eight infants by the same mother

was an ordinary occurrence with Egyptian women! Other statements still more extravagant are made by writers. For example: A traveler in the seventeenth century wrote that he saw, in the year 1630, in a church near the Hague, a tablet on which was an inscription stating that a certain noted countess gave birth at once, in the year 1276, to 365 infants, who were all baptized and christened, the males being all called John, and the females, Elizabeth. They all died on the day of their birth, with their mother, according to the account, and were buried in the church, where the tablet was erected to their memory.

Superfetation. — It occasionally happens that a child is born of the same mother a few weeks or a few months subsequent to the previous childbirth, but not sufficiently long afterward to make it possible to consider the second child the result of a second period of gestation. These curious cases are accounted for by the supposition that superfetation may occasionally occur, that is, the second ovule may pass down into the womb, and become impregnated, some time after the development of the first has begun. This certainly must be a very unusual circumstance, but that it has occurred, is attested by testimony which cannot be doubted. In one case, reported by Dr. Janeway, surgeon in the late war, one of two infants born of a mulatto mother under these peculiar circumstances was a negro, while the other was nearly white, — a fact which offered the most indisputable evidence, not only of the distinct paternity of the two infants as to time, but also as to individuals.

Monsters. — Defects and abnormalities in the development of the embryo produce all degrees of deviation

from the typical human form. Excessive development may result in an extra finger or toe, or in the production of some peculiar excrescence. Deficiency of development may produce all degrees of abnormality from the simple hare-lip to the most frightful deficiency, as the absence of a limb, or even of a head. It is in this manner that those unfortunate individuals known as hermaphrodites are formed. An excessive development of some parts of the female generative organs gives them a great degree of similarity to the external organs of the male. A deficient development of the masculine organs renders them similar in appearance to those of the female. Excessive development, shown in a peculiar manner, produces both kinds of organs in the same individuals in a state more or less complete.

Such curious cases as the Carolina twins and Chang and Eng were formerly supposed to be the result of the union of two separate individuals. It is now believed that they are developed from a single ovum. It has been observed that the primitive trace (described in a previous section) sometimes undergoes partial division longitudinally. If it splits a little at the anterior end, the individual will have a single body with two heads. If a partial division occurs at each end, the resulting being will possess two heads and two pair of legs joined to a single body. More complete division produces a single trunk with two heads, two pair of arms and two pairs of legs, as in the case of the Carolina twins. Still more complete division many result in the formation of two perfect individuals almost entirely independent of each other, physiologically, but united by a narrow band, as in the remarkable Siamese twins, Chang and Eng.

Strange Freaks of Development. — In a curious case reported not a great while ago, a partially developed infant was amputated from the cheek of a child some time after birth.

A few cases have been reported in which partially developed human beings have been found in various parts of the bodies of individuals, which were not produced by any reproductive process, as they have been found in individuals of both sexes. These remarkable cases are undoubtedly the result of the inclosure of one embryo within another.

The precise cause of these strange modifications of development is as yet, in a great degree, a mystery.

Hybrids. — It is a well-known law of biology that no progeny result from union of animals of different species. Different varieties or races of the same species may form a fertile union, the result of which is a cross between its two parents, possessing some of the qualities of each. Such a cross is called a mongrel. All the varieties of dogs are produced by crossing different races, and so are mongrels. The various mixed races of men, such as mulattoes and half-breeds, are also mongrels. The mule is the product of a union between the horse and the ass, and is a true hybrid. The offspring of hybrids are sterile, almost without exception; for the reason that they do not produce mature elements of generation. In the mule, the zoosperms are either entirely absent, or else very imperfectly developed; hence the fact that a colt having a mule for its sire is one of the rarest of curiosities, though a few instances have been reported. This is a wise law of nature to preserve the purity of species.

Law of Sex. — If there is a law by which the sex of

the developing embryo is determined, it probably has not yet been discovered. The influence of the will, the predominant vitality of one or the other of the parents, and the period at which conception occurs, have all been supposed to be the determining cause. A German physician some time since advanced the theory that the two testicles and ovaries produce elements of different sexual character, the right testicle forming zoosperms capable of producing only males, and the right ovary producing ova with the same peculiarity. The left testicle and the left ovary he supposed to form the female elements. He claimed to have proved his theory by experiments upon animals. Even if true, this theory will not be made of practical importance. It is, in fact, nothing more than a revival of an old theory held by physicians who flourished more than two thousand years ago.

Controlling Sex. — More recently another German physician has advanced the theory that the sex may be controlled at will by observing the time of fecundation. He asserts that when fecundation occurs shortly after menstruation, the result will be a female; but if impregnation occurs later in the month, and prior to the three or four days preceding the next menstrual period, a male will almost certainly be produced. This theory was proposed by Prof. Thury of the academy of Geneva, who claims to have thoroughly tested it in a great variety of ways, and always with an affirmative result. Dr. Heitzman, of New York, an instructor in pathological histology, and an eminent physiologist, informs us that he has thoroughly tested this theory, and finds it entirely reliable. There are numerous facts which seem to corroborate its truth, and future investigations may give to it the dignity of an established physiological fact.

Floss, an eminent European author, claims to show by a comparison of the statistics of male and female births in various countries, that sex depends largely upon the food supply, females being relatively most numerous when food is abundant, while males predominate during periods of scarcity of food. Some curious experiments were made a few years ago by a learned entomologist, in the feeding of the larva of insects, which seemed to indicate that those larva which received the most food, developed into females; while those which had the least food, developed into males. Facts well known to bee-keepers also indicate that an extra supply of food and better opportunities for development, is possibly the principal cause which gives origin to sexually perfect bees from larva which would otherwise produce ordinary workers.

The facts just given would seem to support the theory of Floss, but the equally eminent Dr. Preussen maintains that males, and not females, are the result of a better food supply to the mother.

There is good ground for the theory that the relative ages of the parents has much to do with influencing the sex of the offspring; for example, statistics collected in Germany show that when the mother is older than the father, the number of female births is considerably in excess. This is equally true when the father and mother are of the same age. When the father's age is in excess of that of the mother, the male births are in excess of the females, the proportion of cases increasing with the predominance of the father's age above that of the mother. This would seem to agree perfectly with the well-known fact that male births are usually slightly

in excess of the female. This theory would be the natural result of the prevailing custom in society by which the age of the husband usually exceeds that of the wife.

Heredity. — The phenomena of heredity are among the most interesting of biological studies. It is a matter of common observation that a child looks like its parents. It even happens that a child resembles an uncle or a grandparent more nearly than either parent. The same peculiarities are often seen in animals.

The cause of this resemblance of offspring to parents and ancestors has been made a subject of careful study by scientific men. We shall present the most recent theory suggested, which, although it be but a theory, presents such an array of facts in its support, and explains the phenomena in question so admirably, that it must be regarded as something more than a plausible hypothesis. It is the conception of one of the most distinguished scientists of the age. The theory is known as the doctrine of pangenesis, and is essentially as follows: —

Pangenesis. — It is a fact well known to physiologists that every part of the living body is made up of cellular elements which have the power to reproduce themselves in the individual, thus repairing the damage resulting from waste and injury. Each cell produces cells like itself. It is further known that there are found in the body numerous central points of growth. In every group of cells is found a central cell from which the others originate, and which determines the form of their growth. Every minute structure possesses such a center. A simple proof of this fact is found in the experiment in which the spur of a cock was grafted upon the

ear of an ox. It lived in this novel situation eight years, attaining the length of nine inches, and nearly a pound in weight. A tooth has been made to grow upon the comb of a cock in a similar manner. The tail of a pig survived the operation of transplanting from its proper position to the back of the animal, and retained its sensibility. Numerous other similar illustrations might be given.

Gemmules. — The doctrine of pangenesis supposes that these centers of nutrition form and throw off not only cells like themselves, but very minute granules, called gemmules, each of which is capable, under suitable circumstances, of developing into a cell like its parent.

These minute granules are scattered through the system in great numbers. The essential organs of generation, the testicles in the male and the ovaries in the female, perform the task of collecting these gemmules, and forming them into sets, each of which constitutes a reproductive element, and contains, in rudimentary form, a representative of every part of the individual, including the most minute peculiarities. Even more than this: it is supposed that each ovum and each zoosperm contains not only the gemmules necessary to reproduce the individuals who produced them, but also a number of gemmules which have been transmitted from the individual's ancestors.

If this theory be true, — and we can see no sound objection to it, — it is easy to understand all the problems of heredity. The gemmules must be very small indeed, but it may be suggested that the moleculos{sic} of matter are smaller still, so this fact is no objection to the theory.

It will be seen, then, that each spermatozoon, or

zoosperm, actually contains, in an embryonic condition, every organ and tissue of the individual producing it. The same is true of the ovum. In other words, the reproductive elements are complete representatives, in miniature, of the parents, and contain all the elements for producing an offspring possessing the same peculiarities as the parents. Various modifying circumstances sufficiently explain the dissimilarities between parents and children.

This theory is strikingly confirmed by the fact, previously mentioned, that in certain cases the ovum alone, a single reproductive element, may undergo a degree of development approaching very near completion. It is supposed that fecundation is chiefly necessary to give to the gemmules the requisite amount of nourishment to insure development.

As we shall see hereafter, this matter has a very important bearing upon several practical questions.

Circumcision. — The fold of integument called the prepuce, which has been previously described, has upon its inner surface a large number of glands which produce a peculiar secretion. Under certain circumstances, and from inattention to personal cleanliness, this secretion may accumulate, and then often becomes the cause of irritation and serious disease. To prevent such disorders, and to insure cleanliness, the Jewish law required the removal of the prepuce, which constituted the rite of circumcision. The same practice is followed by several modern nations dwelling in tropical climates; and it can scarcely be doubted that it is a very salutary one, and has contributed very materially to the maintenance of that proverbial national health for which the

Jews are celebrated. Eminent physicians have expressed the opinion that the practice would be a salutary one for all men.

It is doubtful, however, whether as much harm as good does not result from circumcision, since it has been shown by extensive observation among the Jews that very great contraction of the meatus, or external orifice of the urethra, is exceedingly common among them, being undoubtedly the result of the prolonged irritation and subsequent cicatricial contraction resulting from circumcision in infancy.

The maintenance of scrupulous cleanliness, by daily cleansing, is an imperative duty.

In some countries, females are also circumcised by removal of the nymphæ. The object is the same as that of circumcision in the male. The same evils result from inattention to local cleanliness, and the same measure of prevention, daily cleansing, is necessitated by a similar secretion. Local cleanliness is neglected by both sexes. Daily washing should begin with infancy, and continue through life, and will prevent much disease.

Castration. — This operation consists in the removal of the testes of the male. It does not at once obliterate the sexual sense, especially if performed after puberty, but of course renders the individual impotent, or incapable of reproduction. Persons upon whom it has been performed are called eunuchs. It was a very common custom in ancient times, being usually prompted by the jealousy of rulers, who allowed no males but eunuchs to associate with their wives and concubines. The effect upon the male is to render him effeminate in

appearance and weak in mind. If performed before puberty, the growth of the beard is scanty, and the voice never acquires that deepness of tone natural to the masculine voice.

Spaying. — An analogous operation, termed spaying, is performed upon females, consisting in the removal of the ovaries; effects similar to those in the male, sterility without entire immediate loss of sexual sense, being the usual result. Spaying is much more frequently performed than castration, and is now employed as a means of relieving certain forms of intractable disease of the womb and ovaries. The credit of first employing this operation in cases of this kind is due to Dr. Battey, of Georgia. Castration is still practiced in some Eastern countries.