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An essay concerning human understanding

  
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To The Right Honourable Lord Thomas,
  
Epistle to the Reader

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Introduction An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
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Book I Neither Principles Nor Ideas Are Innate
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Book II Of Ideas
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Book III Of Words
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Chapter I Of Words or Language in General
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Chapter II Of the Signification of Words
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Chapter III Of General Terms
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Chapter IV Of the Names of Simple Ideas
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Chapter V Of the Names of Mixed Modes and Relations
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Chapter VI Of the Names of Substances
  
1. The common names of substances stand for sorts.
  
2. The essence of each sort of substance is our abstract idea to which the name is annexed.
  
3. The nominal and real essence different.
  
4. Nothing essential to individuals.
  
5. The only essences perceived by us in individual substances are those qualities which entitle them to receive their names.
  
6. Even the real essences of individual substances imply potential sorts.
  
7. The nominal essence bounds the species for us.
  
8. The nature of species, as formed by us.
  
9. Not the real essence, or texture of parts, which we know not.
  
10. Not the substantial form, which we know less.
  
11. That the nominal essence is that only whereby we distinguish species of substances, further evident, from our ideas of finite spirits and of God.
  
12. Of finite spirits there are probably numberless species, in a continuous series or gradation.
  
13. The nominal essence that of the species, as conceived by us, proved from water and ice.
  
14. Difficulties in the supposition of a certain number of real essences.
  
15. A crude supposition.
  
16. Monstrous births.
  
17. Are monsters really a distinct species? Thirdly, It ought to be determined whether those we call monsters be really a distinct species, according to the scholastic notion of the word species; since it is certain that everything that exists has its particular constitution.
  
18. Men can have no ideas of real essences.
  
19. Our nominal essences of substances not perfect collections of the properties that flow from their real essences.
  
20. Hence names independent of real essences.
  
21. But stand for such a collection of simple substances, as we have made the name stand for.
  
22. Our abstract ideas are to us the measures of the species we make: instance in that of man.
  
23. Species in animals not distinguished by generation.
  
24. Not by substantial forms.
  
25. The specific essences that are commonly made by men.
  
26. Therefore very various and uncertain in the ideas of different men.
  
27. Nominal essences of particular substances are undetermined by nature, and therefore various as men vary.
  
28. But not so arbitrary as mixed modes.
  
29. Our nominal essences of substances usually consist of a few obvious qualities observed in things.
  
30. Yet, imperfect as they thus are, they serve for common converse.
  
31. Essences of species under the same name very different in different minds.
  
32. The more general our ideas of substances are, the more incomplete and partial they are.
  
33. This all accommodated to the end of speech.
  
34. Instance in Cassowaries.
  
35. Men determine the sorts of substances, which may be sorted variously.
  
36. Nature makes the similitudes of substances.
  
37. The manner of sorting particular beings the work of fallible men, though nature makes things alike.
  
38. Each abstract idea, with a name to it, makes a nominal essence.
  
39. How genera and species are related to naming.
  
40. Species of artificial things less confused than natural.
  
41. Artificial things of distinct species.
  
42. Substances alone, of all our several sorts of ideas, have proper names.
  
43. Difficult to lead another by words into the thoughts of things stripped of those abstract ideas we give them.
  
44. Instances of mixed modes named kinneah and niouph.
  
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46. Instances of a species of substance named Zahab.
  
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48. The abstract ideas of substances always imperfect, and therefore various.
  
49. Therefore to fix their nominal species, a real essense is supposed.
  
50. Which supposition is of no use.
  
51. Conclusion.
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Chapter VII Of Particles
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Chapter VIII Of Abstract and Concrete Terms
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Chapter IX Of the Imperfection of Words
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Chapter X Of the Abuse of Words
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Chapter XI Of the Remedies of the Foregoing Imperfections and Abuses of Words
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Book IV Of Knowledge and Probability

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8. These axioms do not much influence our other knowledge.

In the next place let us consider, what influence these received maxims have upon the other parts of our knowledge. The rules established in the schools, that all reasonings are Ex præognitis et præconcessis, seem to lay the foundation of all other knowledge in these maxims, and to suppose them to be præcognita. Whereby, I think, are meant these two things: first, that these axioms are those truths that are first known to the mind; and, secondly, that upon them the other parts of our knowledge depend.

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